Trainers,Performance Technologists,and Environmentalists

Performance technology is expanding its horizons. We have witnessed an increasingly wider–angle concern which has moved from a focus on task components to jobs, and from those to organizational concerns–a movement from the microscopic to the big picture. In making this transition, there are important lessons to be learned from environmentalists: they encourage us to think globally and act locally. By expanding from a concern with microlevel performance improvement to a focus where the primary clients and beneficiaries include concerns for performance improvement on all levels–individual, organizational, and client/ societal–we too can think globally, act locally, and also improve our contributions at all levels. This article presents expanding horizons, building upon current models and understandings to develop both strategic thinking and practical tools for both doing our jobs right as well as defining the right job to be done in the first place. The world has shifted, and it is up to us to be increasingly responsive and responsible.     

Analyzing and Selecting Instructional Strategies and Tactics Originally published in 1991, PIQ 4.2

“Formulation of instructional strategy to match subject matter and learner requirements” is an integral part of most instructional design models (Andrews & Goodson, 1980, p.5). Yet the meaning and purpose of instructional strategies in these design models vary considerably. An instructional strategy in traditional design models usually refers to the selection of instructional delivery vehicles (e.g., lecture, demonstration, computer-assisted instruction) and support activities (e.g., practice exercises, tutoring) (cf. Tracey, Flynn, & Legere, 1970). Contrast those conceptions with the many instructional strategies described in elaboration theory (Reigeluth & Stein, 1983), such as subsumptive sequencing, internally consistent orienting structures, synthesizers, summarizers, and cognitive strategy activators. What is obvious from these disparate conceptions is that instructional designers do not share a consistent definition of instructional strategies. Many of the activities that are referred to as instructional strategies are not in fact strategies, but rather are presentation vehicles. In this article, we first define instructional strategies and tactics in the context of an iterative design model. Instructional strategies are then distinguished from instructional tactics, which are the implementation of strategies. We then list the range of instructional strategies and tactics that implement them. Finally, we provide a decision tree for assisting designers to select appropriate instructional tactics.     

Preparing Performance Technologists: The Role of Universities Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.4

It has been several years since the concept of performance technology was introduced in the literature. This article describes how the Instructional Systems program at Florida State University has responded to the changes that are required to expand its orientation from instructional technology to performance technology. Gradual changes in several existing courses and the implementation of two new courses in performance systems analysis and electronic performance support systems are described. In the new courses, students interact with clients to determine needs, examine processes, design solutions, and determine returns on investments. Consideration is also given in the article to ways other universities might respond to the changes in the direction of the field.     

Metacognition and Human Performance Improvement Originally published in 1988, PIQ 1.1

An understanding of the uses of metacognition provides a powerful tool toward developing quality and efficiency in task learning and performance. Metacognition is the executive controller of cognitive processes responsible both for self regulated learning and work performance outcomes. Comprehension monitoring and motivation are two prime components of metacognition which are responsible for commitment to, and definition of, goals, monitoring progress toward goals, and activating the appropriate thinking skills to achieve goals. Specific thinking skill categories of attention, organization, and elaboration are described with examples of how specific techniques in each category can optimize learning and job performance. Research on training of metacognitive skills through both detached and embedded skill-development programs is reviewed. In addition, ways to compensate for metacognitive skills when training is not cost-effective are described. The relationship between metacognitive skills and effective management of work performance is stressed.     

Process Re-Design For Enhanced Human Performance Originally published in 1994, PIQ 7.3

Faced with sophisticated global competition, companies are busily reinventing“themselves. This offers an opportunity for performance technologists to re-think the value added component of their contribution to enhancing human performance. In this evaluation, the four values of speed, simplicity, stretch, and self-confidence assume a central role. Design, as in the past, is key, but design must be founded on the assumption that all human performance involves a process or combination of processes. Furthermore, processes are subject to variability of one kind or another, variability that is either predictable or random. It is argued that a process orientation, rather than a focus on inputs and outputs, offers performance technologists a more direct way of contributing to the realization of key business goals and more effectively focuses training and development on performance issues. Process re-design is a key strategy in the realization of these two goals.     

Dynamism in Electronic Performance Support Systems Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.1

This article introduces a model of dynamic electronic performance support systems. Dynamic support systems are characterized by the ability to change with experience, the ability to be updated and adjusted by the performer, and by the ability to augment other supports found in the performers' community. Dynamic systems are contrasted with the static nature of conventional models of performance support systems. This article reviews the attributes of current performance support systems, describes lessons learned from a project that explored a dynamic model of learning and support, and presents design principles for dynamic performance support.     

Information,Instruction, and Learning: A Hypermedia Perspective Originally published in 1991, PIQ 4.3

Hypermedia as defined by Osgood (1987) is a tool for linking nonlinear information presented in the form of graphics, animation, video, and sound. One important question for instructional designers regarding hypermedia is how it can be used as an instructional or learning tool that enhances rather than inhibits learning. Creating hypermedia applications is a quick and easy alternative to creating courseware with older authoring systems and languages which took many hours to learn. This ease of application creation, combined with a tremendous increase in information available to our society, has resulted in a proliferation of hypermedia databases in school, university, and industry settings that is gradually moving into homes. Many of these databases are simply information media. This paper identifies important issues related to classifying a hypermedia-based information system appropriately. Based on a discussion of these issues, a call for systematic research which clarifies the role that hypermedia-based information systems can and should play in an instructional or learning environment is set forth.     

Specifying a Human Performance Technology Knowledgebase Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.2

The mission of human performance technologists, to assure high levels of human performance in organizations, is well established, and usually accomplished through design and implementation of two major products: performance systems and instructional systems. The speed of change in the environments in which HPT is practiced, however, requires frequent analysis of what knowledge and skills are required of HP technologists in pursuit of this goal. This article works backward from results and the products that obtained them, to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that form the critical human performance technology knowledgebase. The author uses an example from our “universal” neighborhood to illustrate seven basic categories of variables influencing organizational performance, and provides examples and non examples of five essential principles of psychology that can help guide HPT practitioners' efforts to design and implement effective systems.     

Skill Sets for the Human Performance Technologist Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.2

Demand for human performance technology (HPT) practitioners is growing at the same time as their numbers are increasing. Yet no standard repertoire of professional skills exists, nor is thei:e any agency with authority to define required skill sets. A number of sources do, however, offer guidelines. These are observation of current practice, a rich and expanding literature, professional societies, recognized practitioners and knowledgeable clients. These sources provide us with strong indicators as to what constitute skill sets for both current and future practice. This article presents suggested basic and advanced skill sets, identifies future skill needs, and concludes with suggestions for maintaining and enhancing proficiency as a human performance technologist.     

Electronic Performance Support Technology; Defining the Domain Originally published in 1996, PIQ 9.1

Electronic performance support is an expanding area within the field of performance technology. This article reviews and classifies the literature, both conceptual and case-based, in order to assess settings for use, initiating factors for development, and general features of the various systems. Identification of each article reviewed is presented in a matrix of categories that can be used to point those interested in specific aspects of this complex topic to the most pertinent information for their own needs. A general summary of findings follows.     

Performance Technology Skills in Business: Implications for Preparation Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.4

What to teach Performance Technologists should be derived out of an analysis of desired performance. Despite a general agreement on the definition of Performance Technology, desired performance currently varies in business and consulting organizations. This paper reports the results of a survey of 23 organizations regarding current performance of Performance Technologists and current preparation of people for the role. It suggests a three-stage model for preparing Performance Technologists.     

Mastery Learning and Instructional Design Originally published in 1988, PIQ 1.1

Comparisons are drawn between the ideas of mastery learning and those of instructional design. Considerable agreement is noted concerning the main factors contributing to the quality of instruction. Similarities are pointed out in Bloom's alterable variables and a number of the events of instruction described by Gagné. Differences exist in the taxonomic categories of learned performances of the two systems, and in the proposal of instructional design that each category requires a different set of instructional tactics. A noteworthy area of agreement is emphasis on the instructional importance of skill automaticity.     

Performance Technologist Preparation: The Role of Leadership Theory Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.4

This article explores the unique positioning of leadership theory and literature as a unifying and informing discipline for the preparation of performance technologists. Although the role of leadership could be emphasized in any of the settings in which performance technologists become skilled, university departments of educational leadership seem especially suited for programs with this emphasis. A sample course activity is shared and linked to the building of leadership skills. The purpose of this article is to describe the importance of leadership as an informing and unifying discipline for the preparation of performance technologists and to explore the impact of this orientation on performance technologist preparation.     

Increasing Efficiency: A Process-Oriented Approach Originally published in 1993, PIQ 6.4

Increasingly, customer satisfaction and business success depends as much on speed and timing as it does on the cost and quality of the goods we produce or the sendees we render. As such, doing things faster is becoming just as important as doing them better and cheaper. Increased efficiency, however, will not be attained simply by imploring employees to work harder or by increasing employee workloads. Increased efficiency can only be accomplished through the systematic analysis and reengineering of our work processes, including the elimination or minimization of all associated non-value adding process steps. DO•CA•TIM, a seven-step methodology for systematically identifying and eliminating or minimizing non-value adding process steps, is presented. The methodology is appropriate for analyzing and improving the execution of any human task; it is equally applicable to the rendering of services and the production of products.     

Performance Support Engineering: An Emerging Development Methodology for Enabling Organizational Learning Originally published in 1995, PIQ 8.1

This paper discusses an emerging development methodology, Performance Support Engineering, that can be used to design and build performance support systems. It introduces a new model called the Organizational Performance/Learning Cycle that describes the dynamics of the organizational learning process and provides a framework for thinking about the technologies (Ariel 1994) and methodologies that enable that process. The author argues that previous definitions of EPSS were too limited and restricted in their scope and expands on these earlier definitions to take into account this new model of organizational learning. The new definition clearly distinguishes EPSS from traditional systems development, which focuses on data, not on knowledge, and from expert systems development, which focuses on knowledge rather than on enabling performance. This new view of EPSS offers a clear opportunity for organizations to recognize the strategic importance of managing their knowledge assets. Most of the current methodologies in use by different functional groups are limited in their capability to enable this model and the expanded definition of EPSS. The author describes how the emerging Performance Support Engineering methodology overcomes these limitations.     

Creating Our Future in an Age of Transformation Originally published in 1994, PIQ 7.3

There is a growing realization that many of our social systems and organizations are out-of-sync with the new realities of the recently emerged post-industrial, information/knowledge age. These new realities are touching the lives of every individual, every family and community, the host of organizations of our public and private sectors, and our overall society. They affect the future of humanity as a whole. Questions arise. What are these new realities? What are the meanings of societal transformations? What is our role in facing the massive changes that confront us today? Are we only spectators of these changes? Are we their victims? Are we at the mercy of others who control these changes and the experts who design systems for us? Or is it up to us to shape our future and create and recreate the systems to which we belong? What kind of capacities and capabilities should we develop that will allow us to design our own lives, shape our systems, and give direction to the evolution of our communities, our organizations, and our society? I have struggled and worked with these questions over the last three decades. They have been the focus of my research and teaching. I explore these questions in this paper in order to define an approach—the systems design approach—by which we can individually and collectively create a better future for ourselves, our families, our communities and our society while enhancing human performance, adding value to our organizations, and most importantly, creating just and ethical systems for future generations.     

Career Development; The Linkage Between Training and Organizational Development Originally published in 1989, PIQ 2.1

Improved organizational efficiency can only be accomplished if the employees within an organization have developed the skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes to perform at the highest possible levels. To a limited degree this can be accomplished via training, but employees develop the fundamental skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes related only to their current job. As a result, the organization is only indirectly impacted. This refers to the micro perspective of improved organizational efficiency. Organizational efficiency can also be accomplished through organizational development, but the individual employee is often overlooked during this process. Without employee commitment to improve efficiency, it will be short-lived. This approach refers to the macro perspective of improved organizational efficiency. Both the micro and macro perspectives of improved organizational efficiency have their weaknesses. Thus, a combination of the two processes is necessary. Career development is that combination. Career development is a process which enables employees to develop beyond the fundamental skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes required for their present job assignments. It is a process which is focused on improving organizational efficiency while relying on the development of the individual employee. Performance improvement practitioners can provide learning activities which improve employees' skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes by viewing improved organizational efficiency from, an individual (micro) perspective while remaining dedicated to the overall enhancement of the organization (macro). However, many performance improvement practitioners fail to see the connection between training and overall organizational development. These terms are often used interchangeably which leads to the increased confusion and misapplication of each process. It is necessary, therefore, to arrive at an acceptable definition in order to communicate effectively the intent as well as the similarities and differences of the processes. This will enable performance improvement practitioners to better understand the commonalities of each process. It is this understanding that serves as the basis of this article and the forthcoming recommendations.     

Keeping U. S. Companies Competitive: How Performance Technologists Can and Should Contribute

Even in a U. S. economy that is suffering from falling productivity rates, declining market share, and continuing trade balance deficits, some businesses are successful. This article describes some strategies these companies have adopted to stay competitive. What sets the productive companies apart is their ability to shift rapidly to new ways of doing business. In making such transitions, the successful companies recognize that, while machinery and equipment are important factors in winning the race for productivity improvement and global competitiveness, the most important factor is the effort made by human beings. We suggest that since the improvement of human performance is the concern of performance technologists, they should be contributing to the competitiveness of their own and their clients' organization. This article gives examples of innovations that have restored companies to competitiveness and suggests ways that performance technologists can prepare themselves to assist their own companies and clients to introduce similar innovations.     

What Performance Technologists Should Know About Public Education: Implications for Professional Development and Training

Performance Technologists view discrepancies in human performance as products of the system (the set of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common purpose). Before designing, developing, implementing, or evaluating an intervention, Performance Technologists first identify and analyze all relevant aspects of the system. Consequently, to make significant and lasting improvements to public education, Performance Technologists must have knowledge of essential educational system elements and their interrelationships. This paper is divided into two parts. Part One specifies ten essential components of an educational system within the context of; the family and community, the public schools, business and industry, government agencies, and institutes of higher education. It describes the function of each component and examines related trends and issues, illustrating both the complexity and necessity of approaching educational improvement from a systemic perspective. Part Two discusses the implications of the systemic perspective for the professional development and training of Performance Technologists. Together, both parts provide a model for organizing and applying information related to key contextual factors in public schools for those interested in preparing PTs for work in K-12 education.     

企业内部培训师的角色定位与队伍建设

知识经济时代,为提高企业员工培训的针对性和有效性,必须建立一支属于企业自身的、专业的内部培训师队伍。要充分发挥企业内部培训师的优势,进一步明确企业内部培训师的角色定位,并采取有针对性的措施加强培训师队伍建设。