Tutorial facilitation in the humanities based on the tenets of Carl Rogers

This article introduces a model for group facilitation in the humanities based on Carl Roger’s model for group psychotherapy. Certain aspects of Carl Roger’s reflective learning strategies are reappraised and principles, specific only to psychotherapy, are introduced. Five of Rogers’s axioms are applied to the tutorial discussion model: a non-directive approach, climate-setting, facilitation, reflective listening and positive regard. The model, which has been trialed in tutorials at The University of Queensland encourages active learning, self-direction and critical thinking.     

Learning within the worlds of reifications, selves, and phenomena: expanding on the thinking of Vygotsky and Popper

A framework, termed the RSP, is proposed. It is mainly for analyzing and explaining how learning occurs. This framework is grounded in the social-cultural perspective, in particular, in the thinking of both Vygotsky and Popper. Although the thinking of Popper is generally not referred to as having a social-cultural orientation, mostly due to misunderstanding, he and Vygotsky are defensibly complementary. In a nutshell, Vygotsky’s social-cultural (inter-psychological) plane is enriched by Popper’s distinction between physical and conceptual-abstract worlds, while Popper’s mental world is enhanced by Vygotskian and post-Vygotskian work emphasizing personality, that is, the whole self. Integrating and expanding on both Vygotsky and Popper, the RSP framework further unpacks how learning occurs as dialectical interactions between the Worlds of reifications (R), selves (S), and phenomena (P). The World of Reifications (R) extends Popper’s World 3 by emphasizing the developmental nature of conjectures to theories. The World of Selves (S) now extends Popper’s World 2 from cognitive dimensions to the whole individual. And the World of Phenomena (P) extends Popper’s World 1 to include the relationships between objects forming phenomena, including the physical, social, and spiritual dimensions. The interactions among the three Worlds result in five learning outcomes: cognition, metacognition, action, reflective action, and epistemic cognition. It is contended that these five outcomes are necessary criteria for holistic learning. The framework is then applied to analyzing various issues such as resolving lethal mutations, identity, and learning as becoming.     

‘Thinking Schools, Learning Nations’ Implementation of Curriculum Review in Singapore

‘Thinking schools’ will be sites of learning for everyone declared the Singapore Prime Minister, Goh Chok and Minister of Education Teo Chee Hean’s in 1997 also spoke on the model of’ ‘thinking schools, learning nation’. Gardner’s model was used for the thinking school model in Singapore, in order to develop critical and creative thinking in students. This was to be done with the use of instructional technology as an enabling tool using a diversity of approaches including integrated project work. This paper reports on how one school went about changing approaches to teaching and learning by implementing integrated project work as a way of integrating the content areas of the curriculum, mathematics and science through English language, supported by the tools of instructional technology.     

The classroom learning environment as perceived by students in Arab elementary schools

In this study, students’ perceptions of the classroom learning environment in Arab elementary schools were investigated. The sample included 261 students from Grades 5 and 6. The questionnaire was developed at an Arab college of teacher education by 16 fourth-year student teachers who were completing their studies toward a BEd degree. Articles on classroom learning environment were distributed to the students, who then wrote items to assess learning environment. The items were evaluated for content validity in relation to the Arab school culture, language, teachers’ teaching, students’ learning styles, teacher–student relations, order and organisation, discipline and behaviours. The Classroom Learning Environment of Elementary Students (CLEES) questionnaire consists of 32 items in four scales: Teacher’s Image, Group Work, Students’ Participation, and Order and Organisation. The CLEES was used in a pilot study in two Grade 5 and 6 classes in order to validate it. The student teachers administered the questionnaire to students in elementary schools. Data were analysed using SPSS (e.g. factor analysis and one-way ANOVA) to validate the CLEES. No significant differences were found between boys and girls in classroom learning environment. However, significant differences in CLEES perceptions were found between students from different grades (Grade 5 vs. Grade 6), age groups and schools. The results are explained in the discussion section in relation to the characteristics of their schools.     

Patterns of Variation in Teaching the Colour of Light to Primary 3 Students

This paper shows how the patterns of variation created in the teaching were critical in helping a class of Primary 3 students in Hong Kong to learn about the colour of light, so that the students attained conceptual rather than procedural knowledge. A ‘Learning Study’ approach was adopted, which is a Lesson Study grounded in a particular learning theory to improve teaching and learning. This study, based on the learning theory of Variation advanced by Marton and Booth, was premised on three types of variation: variation in students’ ways of experiencing what is to be taught/learnt (V1), variation in teachers’ ways of dealing with the ‘object of learning’ (V2), and the use of ‘pattern of variation’ as a guiding principle of pedagogical design to enhance students’ learning (V3). In planning the lesson, a conscious effort was made to create relevant patterns of variation, i.e. varying certain critical aspect(s) while keeping other aspects of the object of learning invariant in order to help students to discern those aspects. Comparison between the results of the pre- and post-test shows that there was significant gain in the students’ learning outcomes with respect to the intended object of learning. The findings contribute knowledge to how the Theory of Variation can be used in practice. It also illustrates how teachers can make use of this theoretical framework to analyze their own teaching and thereby, develop an analytical awareness of teaching and learning.     

The non-instrumental vision of the learning society

This essay considers the non-instrumental vision of the learning society through the analysis of its conceptual logic and meaning based on A. J. Cropley’s approach. It outlines a view of the learning society whereby learning is an end in itself rather than a means of achieving other economic or civic purposes, as currently described in relevant literature and policies. How the learning society might possibly be developed in practice without attachment to any further concerns is considered. When regarded as being an end in itself, the learning society focuses on the inherent value of learning. Learning is valuable for its very presence, in the sense that it has decisive, long-term effects in shaping one’s character. The development of one’s “learning to become” can become effective when one learns in the learning society. This view opens up a “thought experiment” of how the learning society could be supported in practice. The internal consistency of this possible logic of society and meaning as explored here can be seen as a goal to strive for, a commitment to uphold.     

A comparative assessment of higher education financing in six Arab countries

This study analyses the policies for financing higher education in six Arab countries: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, and Tunisia. It assesses the adequacy of spending on higher education, the efficiency with which resources are utilized, and the equity implications of resource allocations. Based on six detailed case studies, this comparative study is intended to highlight the common features and similarities, as well as the differences among countries in the region, in addition to best practices and success stories. It also addresses the future challenges that are likely to exert pressure on higher education finance and assesses the reform efforts undertaken by the governments in the region. Finally, it proposes alternative strategies for dealing with problems of finance in the Arab region, in light of international experiences and the region’s unique characteristics.     

Assessing education program learning outcomes

Teacher education programs help teachers gain knowledge and skills, develop ‘new’ attitudes, and impact their beliefs about teaching, thereby favorably affecting teaching outcomes. In the absence of national standards and formal studies in Lebanon of existing teacher preparation programs, findings of this study could greatly contribute to needed research in the field and inform policy makers. This study examines a pre-service education program at a private university in Lebanon for the purpose of assessing the program’s learning outcomes. Qualitative data were collected from questionnaires, pre and post surveys, and reflective journals focusing on perceptions of an effective teacher before and after training to detect any development from 50 student–teachers enrolled in the senior practicum classes during the scholastic year when the study was conducted. Fifteen student journals were examined for their reflections on principles, facts and techniques acquired, changes in behavior after training, and the relation of learned theory to work field in light of what they had experienced during their 180 h of fieldwork and seminars at the university. Results were then compared to the program’s stated learning outcomes to assess whether they were achieved. Findings indicated that training positively affects student–teachers, but still more rigorous steps should be taken to ensure that all learning outcomes are met. Implications for program training improvement and recommendations for future research are made.     

Validating the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal

This study validated the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (WGCTA) on a sample of 273 private university students in Lebanon. For that purpose, evidence for construct validation was investigated through identifying the test’s factor structure and subscale total correlations, in addition to differences in scores by gender, different levels, and streams using a series of ANOVA tests. Evidence for the test’s reliability and concurrent validity was also collected. Moreover, students in five courses that emphasize critical thinking were pre–post tested using the WGCTA. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a unidimensional factor while results showed no significant differences in scores on the WGCTA between males and females or between students at different levels except for graduate students in the Business stream. Furthermore, results revealed significant differences for the senior students between different streams. Finally, results showed no statistically significant changes in the mean scores of students who were pre- and post-tested except for nursing students. The test’s significant correlations with various criterion measures provided evidence of its convergent and divergent validities. The results were discussed in terms of the nature of the construct itself, and the effects of training and effective instructional strategies on growth of critical thinking. Recommendations for future research were proposed.     

Promoting a Culture of Thinking in the Young Child

Conscious of the interplay between nature and nurture in determining a child’s individuality and success in life, the author embarked a group of teachers in an action research project towards nurturing a culture of thinking in young children. Considering the positive effects of routines in early learning experiences, the research consisted in implementing thinking routines to engage young children’s minds in thinking activities. The study took place in two Reggio-inspired schools where participating teachers documented children’s work as part of their teaching. The documentation was a key element to make children’s thinking visible as they installed the culture and language of thinking in their classrooms. The study found that thinking routines build up positive attitudes about thinking and learning. By re-visiting their documented work children developed metacognitive and critical thinking skills which make them more alert to situations that call for thinking.     

Polices of promise and practices of limit: Singapore’s literacy education policy landscape and its impact on one school programme

This paper is about the interaction between policy and practice, and about how competing policies contributed to a paradoxical tension within that interaction in one school. Within a paradigm of educational renewal, the Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) has initiated a number of policies designed to give schools autonomy in designing and implementing programmes to achieve optimal educational outcomes for its students. Among these are READ! Singapore, Teach Less, Learn More and the School Excellence Model. In this context, we review an MOE initiated Extensive Reading (ER) programme in one school. Despite such innovative policies, Dewey Secondary School’s [The names of the school and individuals have been changed to protect their privacy.] pedagogical and literacy practices continue to be largely influenced by other dominant features of Singapore’s and the school’s own educational culture—an exam-oriented focus that prioritises outcome and skill-based pedagogy and the school’s historical practice of restricting literacies. Competing policies as interpreted by the school and diverse stakeholders result in a morphed ER programme—an adaptation of a reading programme that reflects the programme intent overtly but one that collides at other times, and as a result, is pulled in different directions. The story is, thus, one of ‘policies of promise and practices of limit’.     

Promoting equity in mathematics teacher preparation: a framework for advancing teacher learning of children’s multiple mathematics knowledge bases

Research repeatedly documents that teachers are underprepared to teach mathematics effectively in diverse classrooms. A critical aspect of learning to be an effective mathematics teacher for diverse learners is developing knowledge, dispositions, and practices that support building on children’s mathematical thinking, as well as their cultural, linguistic, and community-based knowledge. This article presents a conjectured learning trajectory for prospective teachers’ (PSTs’) development related to integrating children’s multiple mathematical knowledge bases (i.e., the understandings and experiences that have the potential to shape and support children’s mathematics learning—including children’s mathematical thinking, and children’s cultural, home, and community-based knowledge), in mathematics instruction. Data were collected from 200 PSTs enrolled in mathematics methods courses at six United States universities. Data sources included beginning and end-of-semester surveys, interviews, and PSTs’ written work. Our conjectured learning trajectory can serve as a tool for mathematics teacher educators and researchers as they focus on PSTs’ development of equitable mathematics instruction.     

Positive Approaches to Learning in the Context of Preschool Classroom Activities

Positive approaches to learning are considered essential for young children’s school readiness and early school success. Researchers have reported that positive learning approaches, such as attentiveness and goal orientation, are associated with higher levels of early school achievement in math and reading. The present study extends this research by examining children’s learning approaches in the context of classroom activities from a range of curricular areas. Ninety-two children from pre-kindergarten and kindergarten classrooms took part in the study. Four approaches to learning were rated during children’s participation in seven classroom learning activities. Results showed that positive learning approaches were a significant contributor to children’s performance, but they were not equally effective in all activities. The effectiveness of a learning approach depends, in part, on the characteristics of the activity in which the child is engaged. We discuss the implications of these results for understanding the study of learning approaches, and for classroom practices designed to promote their development.     

Building community capacity and social infrastructure through landcare: a case study of land grant engagement

In the struggle to remain true to their technical assistance and civic engagement missions in an era of shrinking budgets and increasingly complex accountability claims, land grant universities have developed different engagement strategies to contribute to the development of surrounding communities. Drawing on Flora and Flora’s (in Ann Am Acad Polit Soc Sci, 48, 1993) assertion that a strong and “entrepreneurial” social infrastructure is critical for facilitating lasting change and development in communities (particularly rural communities), this article presents a case study of a land grant university’s engagement with a community landcare group from the perspective of building social capacity in surrounding communities. This case explores Virginia Tech’s involvement in facilitating and supporting Catawba Landcare using three theoretical frames—Ronald Heifetz’s concept of “holding environments” as a safe and facilitated space where social learning can occur; ecological and social entrepreneurship and the roles and functions required to support these forms of entrepreneurship; and the concept of learning action networks in which otherwise disparate partners are linked under common goals and collectively learn how to manage the situation at hand. Using these three theoretical frames, this paper posits landcare as a model of engagement for land grant universities thus contributing to the construction of social infrastructure.     

Colonial legacy, women’s rights and gender-educational inequality in the Arab World with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia

One aspect of the call for democracy in the recent Arab region uprisings is the issue of women’s rights and gender equality. Three cultural and ideological forces have continued to shape the gender discourse in Arab Muslim-majority societies. They are: “Islamic” teaching and local traditions concerning women’s roles in a given society; Western, European colonial perception of women’s rights; and finally national gender-related policy reforms. This paper examines the past and present status of women and gender-educational inequality in the Arab world with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia, prior to and post colonialism. Special attention is given to colonial legacy and its influence on gender and education; to current gender practices in the social sphere with a focus on women’s modesty (hijab); to international policies and national responses with regard to women’s rights and finally to female participation in pre-university and higher education. These issues incorporate a discussion of cultural and religious constraints. The paper demonstrates similarities and differences between Egypt’s and Tunisia’s reform policies towards gender parity. It highlights the confrontation of conservative versus liberal ideologies that occurred in each country with the implementation of its gender-related reform policy.     

A Conceptual Model (The Six Mirrors of the Classroom) and It’s Application to Teaching and Learning About Microorganisms

In this paper a conceptual model of instruction “the six mirrors of the classroom” used as a frame for teaching a learning topic, the microorganisms are depicted. The paper consists of four sections: (a) the six mirrors of the classroom model (SMC); (b) the SMC as implemented in the expository and cooperative modes of instruction in classrooms and results; (c) a “Journey of Inquiry into the Wonderful World of Microorganisms” (JIWWM), developed according to the Science–Technology–Environment–Peace–Society (STEPS) approach; and (d) teaching and learning the JIWWM, in ninth-grade classes, within the SMC model. The results show that science topic can be taught in the frame of the mirrors of the classroom. When the instructional goals of the teachers used the mirror “1, classroom organization” and mirror “6, pupils’ social behavior” and the third ring around the all six mirrors cooperative skills were practiced, academic outcomes were achieved, and attitudes toward environmental preservation and peace improved. The SMC model can serve as a valuable tool for teachers, since it can design their teaching and learning settings in a more controlled environment, in terms of objectives, teachers’ and students’ social behaviors, and academic outcomes.     

Language learning through critical pedagogy in a “Brave New World”

After passing their university entry exam, students who wish to study a subject at one of the Turkish universities offering English-medium courses attend a one-year preparatory class. At the end of this, they need to pass an English language proficiency exam in order to be admitted to their chosen course of study. The existing curriculum for such preparatory classes is designed to be taught in English only and very much oriented towards passing the concluding standardised language proficiency exam at the end. This approach does not teach the students any of the skills they will need for their further study, such as how to think critically or to question their own conditioning and political attitudes. Using a different methodology, the author of this paper conducted an in-class project with students learning English in a Turkish state university’s preparatory class. The project was carried out within a framework of critical pedagogy and used both Turkish and English during the phases of research and discussion. Evaluating the students’ own reflections on the experience as well as their final presentations which were prepared in English, the author suggests that the critical pedagogy approach in combination with a maximum use of students’ means of expression and language resources led to a more meaningful learning experience – both for the students and for herself – as well as a more efficient and lasting English language proficiency.     

Investigating students’ critical thinking in weblogs: an exploratory study in a Singapore secondary school

Critical thinking is an essential competency in the new information age. But research shows that students commonly lack critical thinking skills and hence promoting students’ critical thinking becomes crucial. This exploratory study investigated the extent to which secondary school students’ critical thinking could be promoted by writing reflections in the weblog. Students’ critical thinking was measured by using the Newman’s model. Results showed that writing reflections in the weblog could help promote students’ critical thinking and according to the Newman’s model, three categories of critical thinking were promoted the most, they were bringing outside knowledge or experience (O+), relevance (R+), and justification (J+). In addition, the study also found that the types of interaction with peers and the teacher had a more positive effect on the extent of critical thinking. Implications for other research are discussed.