Stages de formation pédagogique des maitres a l' “Umanitaria”

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Un exemple de transfert pédagogique: le catéchisme politique

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Protestant and Catholic Reformations involved an intense didactic and pastoral activity, and logically a huge catechetical production. Religious catechisms were the only books used as reading textbooks in the French “petites écoles”. The will to publish a secularised catechism progressively spread among the second generation of Enlightenment thinkers who published impious catechisms like Voltaire’s for example. But d’Alembert, among others, asked for the appropriation of sacred and popular form of religious instruction for Enlightenment purposes: scientific vulgarisation for example. Then, during the second half of the eighteenth century there occurred a secularisation of the catechism, often considered didactically as a knowledge summary. For example, in 1771 a Cours d’accouchement en forme de catéchisme by Tulinge, was published for midwives. And in 1773 the bishop Bexon wrote a Catéchisme d’agriculture for peasants. On the eve of the French Revolution, catechism had become a general way to expose knowledge in parallel with its Catholic use. The French revolutionaries used this teaching method to expose the new order and then, after the secularisation, a politicisation of the catechism occurred. During the French Revolution a transfer occurred from the Christian catechesis to the revolutionary education, which widely used political catechisms as official textbooks. Political catechisms – defined as summaries of main political doctrine principles and generally found in the form of questions and answers – were widely used in nineteenth-century France for political education. This article is based on a corpus of 815 political catechisms, published between the eve of the French Revolution and the First World War, mostly in France. This corpus of political books shares a deep formal homogeneity and a strong rhetorical stability. However, political catechisms had various uses: they were widely used for morals and civics teaching during the first half of the nineteenth century, and then turned to electoral catechisms from 1848 to the beginning of the twentieth century. The nineteenth century was the “century of the catechism” because this pedagogy was widely used, and not only for a religious purpose. We will focus on the pedagogic transfer that occurred from the 1750s to the French Revolution. For example, 1791 is the first peak with 47 books published that year. The reason for this production is a wide dissemination of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, subsequently of the Constitution and finally of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the latter two issued in 1791. Then, the French Clergy was deeply involved in such literature. In fact, a large number of clergymen, especially from the teaching orders (such as Doctrinaires for example) initially agreed with the revolutionary ideas and naturally used the catechism to spread the new underlying texts and ideas widely. The succession of questions and answers was considered the best teaching method to explain the new constitutional texts, especially for the youth. This teaching choice is backed by the will to provide people with a kind of political catechism, in parallel with the religious catechism. With 87 catechisms published during 1794 for 44 different titles, this is the most important peak of political catechism production. The first explanation for the peak is the fact that in 1794, on 28 January (9 pluviôse an II), the Convention Nationale launched a competition to stimulate schoolbook production, in order to replace books published during the Old Regime. This stimulated political catechism production. The transfer is obvious and was followed by a politicisation of the catechism. The political catechism is a major genre of nineteenth-century political literature with material conventions (a short, low-quality and cheap book) and obvious discursive conventions. The authors wished to write an elementary book used as a tool of politicisation and easy to spread among the lower classes. An educational transfer rather than a transfer of sanctity occurred during the French Revolution and political catechisms must be considered as a major political literary genre.     

Les conditions préliminaires à l'intégration pédagogique des moyens audiovisuels

L'usage des moyens audiovisuels exige l'intégration dans la classe de moyens puissants, coûteux, impliquant des techniques variées. Il importe de réviser complètement nos idées en matiére d'éducation. Jusqu'ici, trop souvent, les moyens audiovisuels ont été utilisés comme des auxiliaires mineurs de l'enseignement sur lequel, trop souvent, ils ont eu, comme l'on dit, le même effet qu'un cautère sur une jambe de bois. En fait, un tout petit remède qui n'a que très peu d'effet par rapport à l'efficacité potentielle de tous ces moyens.     

Rencontre internationale d'experts de la recherche pédagogique,Atlantic City (USA), Février 1956

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Revue des revues pédagogiques de langue française

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La spécialisation des professeurs en question: l’organisation pédagogique au prisme des contraintes matérielles (France, 1865–1941)

ABSTRACT

Worldwide, subject-matter teachers are commonplace in post-elementary schools. Teachers’ specialisation appears as a key characteristic of secondary schools as opposed to the polyvalence of primary school teachers. Historians have already studied the long process of teachers’ specialisation, which started, in France as in Prussia (for example), at the beginning of the nineteenth century and developed alongside secondary school modernisation. Those works have usually focused on professional aspects: the structuration of professional groups thanks to the unification of training and recruiting processes, the organisation of teachers within subject-matter associations etc. However, they have not paid much attention to the resistance opposed by other forms of pedagogical organisation, as if polyvalence were were just a backward anomaly, a backward anomaly, doomed to disappear.

This paper seeks to shed new light on this question using a comparison between the different forms of post-elementary schooling that existed at the same time in France between the last third of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, when the slow growth of post-elementary schooling was mainly due to the success of subaltern institutions. In those institutions, dedicated to technical education, girls’ secondary education, or upper-lower classes’ education (“primaire supérieur”, “secondaire special”), different kinds of polyvalence or bivalence were experienced in the classrooms. At the same time, specialisation was triumphing in classical secondary education. Why, how and to what extent did specialisation eventually impose itself in these different institutions? To address this question, two types of material are used. On the one hand, the question is studied on a national level, analysing both the legislation and the controversies it arouses in pedagogical and professional reviews. On the other hand, these views and theories are confronted with a prosopography of post-elementary school teachers in one department, Eure-et-Loir, which offers several forms of post-elementary institutions. This question is addressed focusing on literary disciplines (philosophy, French, Latin, Greek, modern languages and history and geography). By narrowing the scope, the intellectual and cultural stakes of the various pedagogical organisations that were implemented or advocated may more easily be grasped.

The first part of the article examines the most common (though relatively untested) hypothesis: there was just one strategy for those who advocated the promotion of subaltern types of post-elementary schooling as part of a democratisation process, and this strategy was reproducing the model of the elite institution, secondary classical education, including its pedagogical organisation, starting with subject-matter teachers. The chronology of the changes, the content of the debates, as well as a comparative inquiry into teachers’ remuneration induces us to discard this hypothesis as insufficient if not irrelevant. For girls’ secondary education, a trade-off may be observed between equalisation (of salaries, rights etc.) and pedagogical alignment. For the other institutions, there was no lack of advocates for the specificity of the pedagogy or of the institution; however, specialisation was usually considered a process that could ameliorate the quality of teaching in these institutions without renouncing its specificity.

In fact, in the period under study, the louder advocates for less specialised teachers came from secondary classical education itself: the specialisation process as well as the fragmentation of the class schedule had pedagogic inconveniences, abundantly noticed and commented on by subject-matter teachers themselves. In the second part, these critics and the two main alternatives suggested by the teachers are examined. The first is linked with the Progressive Education movement (“Education nouvelle” in French). The École des Roches, a private institution, tested an original organisation that combined the tradition of the humanities with the modern characteristic of “Éducation nouvelle”: there was only one teacher for history, geography, French, Latin and Greek. The teacher was thus enabled to practise a pedagogy of interest, as advocated by Ovide Decroly. The second alternative was advocated by some modern language teachers: if modern language teachers could teach French as well as a modern language, this pedagogic organisation could give strong unity to the until then defective “modern” curriculum (without Latin).

The third part turns towards the effective organisation of post-elementary schools in Eure-et-Loir. To what extent were these alternative conceptions of pedagogical organisation implemented? The analysis of individual records of teachers suggests several results. First of all, in small institutions – be they classical secondary institutions like “collèges” or modern ones like “écoles primaires supérieures” – specialisation of services was a luxury that most teachers could not afford. Most of the time, they had to teach several subjects, even if they had been trained for just one. However, polyvalence was not used as an opportunity to make connections between the subjects. Class schedules rarely enabled teachers to use polyvalence as a way to teach several subjects to the same pupils. More often, polyvalence was used by the administration as an expedient that some teachers explicitly tried to escape, for example by asking for a move to a bigger institution.

This mundane reality of small institutions invites us to pay renewed attention to teacher training and its regulation during the same period. At the end of the nineteenth century, teachers’ specialisation had been inextricably linked with the modernisation of universities through the specialisation of the “licence de lettres” in 1880. When this model proved to be partially irrelevant for a significant proportion of post-elementary schools, how did universities react? Were universities fit for something other than training specialised teachers? The answer is yes. The curriculum organisation of the licence opened up several possibilities for training polyvalent teachers. This perspective was still looming at the end of the 1930s.

The curricula of the different post-elementary settings analysed in this article shared the same characteristics: they worked as “serial codes” not as “integrated codes”, to quote Basil Bernstein. Therefore the specialisation, bivalence or polyvalence of the teachers did not have much influence, in itself, on the degree of integration of the curriculum. From this perspective, specialisation could probably guarantee better teaching of the subject matters. However, polyvalent teachers were better suited to small schools than specialist ones. Considering demographic and geographic constraints, there was a clear trade-off between specialisation of teachers and separation of publics. In small cities, it was necessary either to mix the pupils to specialise the teachers, or to accept some kind of polyvalence to keep different types of students separated; the debate was still open during the 1930s. School massification, coeducation and the baby-boom era rapidly settled the matter for small cities after the Second World War, giving way to an effective specialisation of teachers. But the question remained open, until the end of the 1970s, for rural settings.     

Les colonies de vacances en France, 1944–1958: impulsions politiques autour d’un fait social majeur

Abstract

This article looks at the French state’s approach to the “colonies de vacances” between 1944 and 1958. Created in 1876 by the Reverend Bion in Zurich, these summer camps originated as a charitable institution: their initial purpose was to provide rural retreats and to restore the health of poor urban youth. Set up on French soil in 1880, these institutions gradually grew in France in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Considered both as complements to the republican school and as extensions of the “patronages” (parish unions), they were important for children and adolescents from the industrial city suburbs, and were enshrined in the leisure policies of the Popular Front from 1936 onwards. After the Second World War, summer camps in France became a major social institution (300,000 children went to summer camps in 1945, 900,000 in 1949) in response to both hygiene and educational needs. Based on the archives of the Directorate of Youth Movements and Popular Education (1944–1947) and the General Directorate of Youth and Sports (1948–1958), this article aims to examine the politics behind the organisation of these summer camps and to demonstrate the social and political importance of these popular educational institutions which, in 1957, involved 1.35 million French children and teenagers. Although the history of French summer camp federations (UFCV, CEMEA, CPVC, UFOVAL, etc.) has been widely studied, how the state sees its role and influences these organisations has mostly been considered indirectly. The intention is to show that among the educational, cultural and sports policies implemented during the Fourth Republic in France, those related to the organisation of “colonies de vacances”, and therefore the organisation of holidays for a very large number of children and teenagers, occupy a significant place. In 1944, the summer camps were widely supported by the French state, which also planned to regulate this booming sector. The creation of qualifications for summer camp staff and directors in 1949 obliged organisations to start training schemes: they trained staff and directors to work in the municipal camps, associations, etc. Security issues led to the state tightening control of the summer camps, their recruitment and their activities. There was a great deal of political investment in these “colonies de vacances” during this period, and this was reflected in the creation of a Ministerial Education Committee in 1950, a general and regional body of inspectors for these camps, etc. However, the considerable expansion of summer camps posed increasing problems at the national political level resulting in changes to the initial subsidy policies. The State played a major part in crucial issues such as the sociological diversification of these institutions and the changes in their social role according to evolving sociocultural trend. The fact remains that the “colonies de vacances” were for the French state a centrepiece of the “popular education” that the political actors of the Fourth Republic wanted to implement in order to build the France of the post-war period..     

L'enseignement mutuel à Genève ou l'histoire de l'‘échec’ d'une innovation pédagogique en contexte: L'école de Saint‐Gervais, 1815–1850

In the first half of the nineteenth century, the monitorial system was for some elites the pedagogical invention that could realize the project to provide education for all children of the popular classes. Despite this not being the main pedagogical method, its diffusion was large at first but after a few years it was gradually abandoned. To understand this pendulum movement, this paper tries to show the political, ideological, social and pedagogical involvements of the method. What was its role in providing education for popular classes? Which social and political projects sustained it? Which actors and factors supported it and then gave it up? What were its practices? What was the evolution of the method? From the viewpoint of social and cultural history, this paper aims to analyse and explain the process of this pedagogic innovation through the case of the monitorial system in Geneva from 1815 to 1850.     

«Nouveaux» médias et innovation pédagogique: l'hypothèse d'un dispositif transitionnel

L'introduction des technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) dans les pratiques éducatives s'accompagne d'un questionnement foisonnant sur les effets attendus et potentiels de ces outils sur l'apprentissage et les relations pédagogiques entre apprenants et enseignants. C'est dans ce cadre que s'inscrit l'appel d'offres lancé en mai 1998 par le Comité National de Coordination de la Recherche en éducation (CNCRE, France), appel comprenant ces deux questions: 'Comment les technologies de l'information et de la communication sont-elles utilisées dans le système éducatif? Modifient-elles la nature, les contenus et les modalités des apprentissages, ainsi que les acquis, le rapport au savoir et les attitudes des élèves, des étudiants et des enseignants?' L'appel préconisait de répondre À ces questions en faisant une revue synthétique de la littérature internationale disponible sur ce champ. Cet article s'attache À présenter la manière dont notre équipe, retenue par cet appel d'offres, a traité de cette problématique générale. (Paulette Bernhard (Ecole de Bibliothéconomie et des Sciences de l'Information de Montréal, Québec); Patrick Bompard (Institut de l'Homme et de la Technologie, France); Hughes Choplin (Département Innovation Pédagogique, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télecommunications, France); Nicole Cortesi-Grou (Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Télecommunications, France); Sonia Lefebvre (Université de Trois Rivières, Québec); Didier Paquelin (Université de Bordeaux III, France); Serge Pouts-Lajus (Observatoire des Technologies pour l'Education en Europe, Paris); Jean-FranÇois-Rouet (Université de Poitiers, France). New media and pedagogic innovation: the hypothesis for a transitional system. The introduction of information and communication technologies (ICT) into educational practices has been accompanied by much questioning about the expected effects and the potential of these tools with respect to teaching and training, and the pedagogic relationships between teachers and learners. It was within this framework that a call for offers was announced in May 1998 by the National Committee for Coordination of Research into Education (CNRE – France), a call which consisted of two questions: 'How is ICT used in the educational system?' and 'Does it modify the nature, the contents and the modes of training and education, as well as the acquisition, the rapport with knowledge and the attitudes of pupils, students and teachers?' The call recommended that the response to these questions should be made by making a synthesis of international literature available in the field. This article sets out to present the way in which our team, formed because of this call for offers, has dealt with this general problem. Neue Medien und pädagogische Innovation : die Hypothese von einem Uebergangssystem. Die Einführung der Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien (ICT) in der pädagogischen Praxis wird begleitet von vielen Fragen über erwartete und potentielle Auswirkungen auf die Bildung, und die pädagogische Beziehung zwischen Lehrern und Schülern. Sie bewegen sich im Rahmen eines Aufrufs vom Mai 1998 durch das 'Comité National de Coordination de la Recherche en Education' (CNCRE – Frankreich), der zwei Fragen beinhaltete : " Wie werden die neuen Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien im Bildungssystem eingesetzt ? " und " Verändern sie die Art, die Inhalte, und die Modalitäten der Bildung, die pädagogischen Errungenschaften, die Beziehung zu Wissen, die Einstellung der Schüler, Studenten, und Lehrkräfte ? " Zur Beantwortung der Fragen, empfahl der Aufruf eine zusammenfassende Ausarbeitung über die international verfügbare Literatur auf diesem Gebiet. Dieser Artikel präsentiert, wie unsere Arbeitsgruppe, ermuntert durch den Aufruf, diese allgemeine Problematik angegangen ist.     

Validité des instruments de décision pour l'évaluation des enseignants?

A review of the literature shows that the use of teacher evaluation in public education is widespread. This seems paradoxical when one considers the amount of criticism levied at them by a various groups. The present study was designed in order to deal with the problems of validity and reliability of teacher evaluation instruments planned for the purpose of teachers' promotion or for awarding merit pay. Based upon a review of the literature and school inspectors' judgements, a teacher evaluation instrument including 25 items has been constructed. The instrument has been tested by five school inspectors and 180 school principals. Following their judgements and the factor analysis run upon the data, a face validity and a content validity of the developed instrument emerged. However, conclusions concerning the reliability of the instrument have to be treated with caution. The use of an instrument of this type is justified only for making preliminary decisions as to the eligibility of teachers for further consideration for promotion or for merit pay. L'analyse de la littérature professionnelle montre l'utilisation croissante dans les établissements publics des instruments d'évaluation des enseignants. Ceci parait paradoxal si l'on tient compte des critiques importantes formulées à leur encontre par des groupes différents. La présente étude traite des problèmes de validitéet de fiabilitédes instruments d'évaluation des enseignants pour les décisions de promotion et de rémunération ''de mérite''. Se fondant sur la littérature professionnelle et sur les appréciations formulées par les inspecteurs scolaires, elle a élaboré un instrument représentatif d'évaluation des enseignants comportant 25 éléments. L'instrument a été testé auprès de 5 inspecteurs et de 180 directeurs d'école. Les résultats révèlent que cet instrument possède une validitéde contenu établie sur la littérature professionnelle, sur l'appréciation des inspecteurs scolaires et sur les résultats d'une analyse de facteurs fondée sur les réponses des directeurs d'école au questionnaire proposé. Toutefois, en ce qui concerne la fiabilité, les conclusions sont plus nuancées. L'utilisation d'instruments de ce type semble uniquement efficace pour la détermination préliminaire de ceux qui au sein des enseignants auraient droit ensuite à un examen plus précis de leurs mérites en vue de promotion ou de rémunérations. El análisis de la literatura profesional evidencia el uso creciente en los establecimientos públicos de instrumentos de evaluación de los profesores. Esto podría parecer paradójico si se tienen en cuenta las críticas importantes formuladas por diferentes grupos. El presente estudio trata de los problemas de validez y de fiabilidad de los instrumentsos de evaluación de los profesores para las decisiones de promoción y de remuneración ''del mérito''. Tomando como base la literatura profesional y las apreciaciones formuladas por los inspectores escolares, se ha elaborado un instrumento representativo de la evaluación de los profesores que comporta 25 elementos. El instrumento se sometióa prueba con 5 inspectores y 180 directores de escuela. Los resultados revelan que este instrumento representativo posee una validez de contenido establecida a partir de la literatura profesional, de la apreciación de los inspectores escolares y de los resultados de un análisis de factores que se fundamenta en las respuestas al cuestionario de directores de escuela. Sin embargo, en lo que se refiere a la fiabilidad de contenido, las conclusiones no son tan definidas. El uso de instrumentos de este tipo parece únicamente eficaz para la determinación preliminar de aquellos profesores que podrian tener derecho en una fase posterior, a pasar un examen más preciso de sus méritos para una promoción o remuneración. Sin embargo, dicho grupo de profesores una vez identificado, el instrumento no parece ser lo suficientemente fiable para la decisión de una promoción y convendría desarrollar enfoques complementarios. Ein Überblick über die Fachliteratur zeigt, dass sich die Verwendung Lehrerbewertungen immer mehr verbreitet, obwohl es paradoxalerweise von verschiedenen Gruppen stark kritisiert wird. Die vorliegende Studie beschäftigt sich mit den Problemen der Gültgkeit und Zuverlässigkeit von den Lehrerbewertungsmitteln, in Bezug auf die Beförderungsentscheidungen und auf die Leistungsentlohnungen. Sie hat, gestützt auf die Fachliteratur und auf die Ansichten der Schulraten, einen Bewertungssystem der Lehrer in 25 Punkten entworfen. Dieses Bewertungssystem wurde von 25 Schulraten und von 180 Schuldirektoren geprüft. Ihre Ansichten, sowie die Faktorenanalyse der Daten, bestätigen die Gültigkeit dieses Instrumentes. Die Benutzung eines Instrumentes dieser Art sollte zu einer ersten Entscheidung führen, dessen Inhalt nur die Berechtigung der Lehrer zur Beförderung, zur Leistungsentlohnung und zur weitere Untersuchung beinflussen sollte.     

Analyse des Facteurs de Réussite de l'Implantation d'une Innovation Scolaire

School innovating involves risks for teachers; professional risks, but also personal risks. So, the implantation and the diffusion of schools innovations are only possible if certain facilitating conditions are fulfilled.

Considering a specific innovation developed for 15 years in Belgium (peer‐tutoring), the authors are trying to answer the following questions: ? What conditions have to be fulfilled for an innovation to take shape and to expand?

? What are the most important factors which determine the success or the failure of an innovation?

? Even though the effects on pupils remain the justification of an innovation, how can we take into account the questions the teachers ask themselves at the different stages of the innovation? What are those questions? How can all the actors of the project find what they expected?

     

Emploi des Circuits Fermés de Télévision pour I'Enseignement des Sciences dans les Universités

De prime abord, il faut souligner que le circuit fermé de télévision n'est qu'un des moyens audio-visuels utilisés dans les facultés des sciences. Le nombre et l'employ de ces circuits fermés de télévision restent encore limités, c'est le cinéma qui continue d'être le moyen vedette. Cette situation est directement liée au fait que si l'on considère le rapport: travail/efficacité/prix, le circuit fermé de télévision est le plus cher des moyens audio-visuels. Néamnions la loupe collective ou épiscope électronique, échappe à cette critique.     

Une approche plurilingue pour faciliter l’inclusion scolaire : engagement et dynamique pédagogique

A multilingual approach to facilitating inclusion: Educational commitment and dynamics – In the school context, the first steps in the process of learning a foreign language require commitment and motivation on the part of the learner, as well as a commitment from the teacher to include all students. This raises questions about the inclusiveness of education and the educational achievement of multilingual and/or immigrant students in predominantly monolingual classes. The author draws on a corpus of research to explore a number of parameters involved in the implementation of a multilingual and inclusive approach. She links the foundations of a multilingual approach to the institutional framework and the positions of the actors in the didactic relationship, as well as in their relationship to languages. The article then gives an overview of the characteristics of the metacognitive strategies employed by multilingual learners and, in conclusion, proposes some innovative methods to go beyond the monolingual principles in learning and foster exchanges that are both multicultural and multilingual.     

Modalités de la pensée mathématique d'élèves de douze ans devant des problèmes de pavages

Resumé Le présent article est d'abord une analyse d'un enseignement dans lequel des élèves de douze ans ont traité des problèmes de pavages polygonaux et progressé à cette occasion dans leur apprentissage de la géométrie plane. L'analyse, qui a porté principalement sur les processus de pensée des élèves, aboutit à rassembler ces processus en deux catégories principales: ceux qui relèvent d'une pensée dite instantanée et qui se manifestent surtout par des constats ou des conjectures rapides, et ceux qui sont plutôt discursifs et apparaissent principalement dans les activités de dessin et l'argumentation des preuves.Cet article contient aussi une comparaison de l'enseignement mentionné ci-dessus avec celui réalisé par D. van Hiele sur le même thème et analysé dans sa thèse de doctorat (1957).

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Forms of mathematical thought of twelve years old students at tiling problems

The main part of this paper consists in an analysis of the activities of twelve years old students solving problems of polygonal tilings and improving on this occasion their knowledge of plane geometry. The analysis, bearing principally on the thinking processes of the students, results in a presentation of these processes in two principal categories: those which belong to what may be called the instantaneous thinking and result mainly in the perception of some simple structures or in some swift conjectures, and those which are of a more discursive nature and appear mainly in the drawing activities and in the argumentation of the proofs.This paper contains also a comparison of the above mentioned teaching with the analogous one organized on the same theme (tilings of the plane) by D. van Hiele, and analysed in her Ph.D. (1957).

     

L'emploi des Circuits Fermés de Télévision dans l'Enseignement Secondaire

The 8th International Week for Educational and Teaching Films organised by the Ministry of Education and Flemish Culture was opened on 17 April 1972—about a month later than usual.     

Un exemple de cadre conceptuel pour létude de l'enseignement de la géométrie en formation des maîtres

We are interested in the teaching of geometry to primary school (children from 3 to 11) teachers. We define a priori a conceptual frame, which organises geometry upon three kinds of knowledge: intuition, experience and deduction. Drawing on Gonseth's works, we bring out three syntheses of elementary geometry: natural geometry (geometry I), natural axiomatic geometry (geometry II) and formalist axiomatic geometry (geometry III). Next we illustrate this conceptual frame with examples of teaching geometry. Last we bring out different conceptions of geometry in scholar system which could lead to cross purposes.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Le problème de léducation des parents

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Parent education

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Le Problème de L'éducation des Parents Elternerziehung

     

Les pièges de l'enseignement des mathématiques

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