Physical education and sport and special needs in Germany

Abstract

Historically, in Germany individuals with special needs have been offered participation in physical education (PE) both in segregated and increasingly in integrated settings. Specific curricula for children with disabilities (physical disabilities, hearing, and visual impairments, speech and behaviour disorders as well as intellectual disabilities) were developed in the 1960s and 1970s. They all emphasized the specific importance of physical activities for people with a disability focusing not only on motor competencies but also on the psychological and social benefits of physical education. During the 1970s so‐called model schools started to include children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Unlike developments in the United States, for example, where integrated or mainstream schooling was based on legal requirements, in Germany improved integration or inclusion was not based on federal law, but on parents’ or teachers’ initiatives in different Bundesländer (states of Germany). Parallel to these developments, new approaches to PE have accentuated a positive orientation towards ‘ability’ rather than ‘disability’. Professionals in PE in universities and in schools have been challenged to develop better diagnostic skills and more individualized programmes. On the initiative of nine European universities, a European Master's degree of Adapted Physical Activity has been developed to offer advanced training on a European scale. However, despite these positive and innovative developments serious concerns remain concerning the situation of children with disabilities in the school system. This article argues that there is still a significant lack of specially trained professionals and support staff and that the ongoing process of reducing the amount of PE in schools for all children, including those with a disability, does not contribute to improved physical and social skills or increased participation in recreational and sport activities outside schools.     

Children with Intellectual Disabilities and Special School Education in Ghana

Even though Ghana has embraced international calls for mainstream education, many children with intellectual disabilities still receive education in segregated special schools. This article discusses the views of seven informants on the importance of special schools in Ghana. After securing the consent of our informants, we conducted in-depth qualitative interviews, transcribed and subjected the data to thematic analysis. The following views on the education of children with intellectual disabilities in special schools emerged; availability of dedicated teachers, variations in learning activities, playing the preparatory role, inclusion on their premises, discrimination and cultural stereotypes. The findings indicate that special schools still play important roles in the education of children with intellectual disabilities in Ghana.     

培智学校校本课程开发实践研究

近些年来,随着随班就读工作的深入开展,培智学校的教育对象从招收轻度智力障碍学生为主逐渐转变为招收中、重度智力障碍学生为主,且学校中同时伴有情绪行为障碍及自闭症的学生越来越多。良好的教育训练可以改善与提高中、重度智力障碍儿童的适应能力,其中,学校的课程设置与开发尤为重要。学校在个别化教育、生存教育与生活教育等理念的指导下,以智障学生生活适应能力培养为核心,进行了课程开发实践研究,取得了一定成效。     

Integration of Students with Severe and Profound Intellectual Disabilities into the Comprehensive School System: Teachers' perceptions of the education reform in Finland

In Finland compulsory education has been organised within the comprehensive school system since 1970. However, until August 1997, the students with the most severe intellectual disabilities were educated by social welfare authorities outside the school system. This study evaluates the transition from the social service system into the comprehensive school system one year after the reform. Nationally representative data was gathered in 1998 from 125 teachers who taught 591 (65%) of all school age children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities in Finland. The results of the study indicated that while physical integration had increased, individual integration into the full-time mainstream classroom occurred only seldom. Further, only a few teachers thought that the best placement for children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities was in full-time general education classes. About 80% of the respondents thought that the best placement was in full- or part-time special classes located in mainstream schools.     

智力残疾人职业高中课程体系建设的实践研究

本研究在生活质量理念、支持性教育理念的指导下,以就业安置为目标,构建培智学校职业教育校本课程体系.通过近四年的校本研究,初步构建了智力残疾人职业高中课程体系,并对智力残疾人的专业训练、支持性就业等问题进行了重点研究,取得了较好的效果.     

A decade of change in mainstream education for children with intellectual disabilities in the Republic of Ireland

Inclusive rather than segregated schooling has been advocated in several significant international declarations during the past two decades. Even so children with significant intellectual disabilities are at greater risk of being excluded from mainstream education, unless particular efforts are made to support them in such settings. These children and young people are more likely to be educated in special schools or in special classes within mainstream schools. In the decade from 2003 to 2013, the Republic of Ireland enacted legislation and provided additional financial resources for pupils with special educational needs, although these were more constrained during the financial crisis that Ireland experienced from 2008 onwards. A national database, updated annually, is maintained of children receiving services from specialist intellectual disability services and this enabled comparisons to be made for the enrolments of over 8000 children aged 4–19 in mainstream and special schools following the introduction of legislation and availability of additional resources. The data showed a steady increase in children with significant intellectual disabilities attending mainstream classes and a decrease in the proportion attending special schools along with a much smaller but decreasing proportion in special classes. The profile of pupils with intellectual disabilities in mainstream and special schools also changed over the 10 years with higher proportions of males, of pupils with moderate disabilities and those of primary age attending mainstream schools, whereas special schools now tend to have higher proportions of females and those of secondary school age. However, there was marked regional variation in the proportions of pupils in mainstream schools which was attributed to the availability of special schools across the State. This study demonstrates how a national data-set can be used to track the impact that policy changes and legislation designed to enhance the development of inclusive learning environments had on the number of pupils availing of mainstream opportunities. It was also possible to identify prevailing trends in types of support provided within schools and the changing pattern of provision for pupils with different levels of intellectual disability. At the broader level of international trends in policy and provision aimed at establishing inclusive learning environments, this study demonstrates the need for a common frame of reference around which the national and international conversations on educational systems can take place.     

Sources of stress for Greek students with intellectual disabilities attending mainstream schools

Students with intellectual disabilities often experience school‐related stress. As a result, they are confronted with many difficulties in their daily school life. The goal of this study was to assess situations of school life that students attending Greek mainstream settings are likely to experience as stressful. Twenty students with mild intellectual disabilities were interviewed about their feelings and thoughts regarding possible stressful situations in school. Qualitative analysis of the interviews' data was conducted. As a result, five main sources of school‐related stress were mentioned: school achievement and classroom participation; peer interactions; student behaviour and risk of injury; parents' expectations; and teacher acceptance. The findings suggest that children with intellectual disabilities experience school‐related stress mainly to a normal degree. Concerning the stress factors that emerged as crucial, a basic conclusion can be drawn: mainstream schools should be changed into inclusive communities where student differences are fully respected, and wherein all children, with and without disabilities, are supported according to their individual abilities, potentials and needs.     

Integration in Victoria: Teachers’ Attitudes After Six Years of A No‐Choice Policy

THE STUDY investigated differences in attitude toward the integration of children with disabilities as measured by responses on the Attitudes Toward Mainstreaming Scale between a 1984 sample of teachers, teachers‐in‐training and non‐teachers in the State of Victoria, Australia, with corresponding groups in 1990. In 1984 a new policy which emphasised the rights of all children to an education in regular schools and the consequent expectation that teachers had no choice about whether they would accept children with disabilities into their classes had been introduced. It was found that in 1990 the teacher groups expressed more positive responses than had their counterparts in 1984. The teacher groups in 1984 had been less positive than the non‐teachers but in 1990 this difference had disappeared. The factor structure of the responses in 1990 emphasised the changes further indicating that children with intellectual disabilities and/or those with disturbed behaviour were those about whom teachers held the most concerns. The availability of ancillary staff was seen as a major factor in the more positive attitudes toward the policy.     

Special Education Policy for Learners with Mild Intellectual Disability in New Zealand: Problems and Issues

Current policy developments are intended to broaden the group of children receiving special education provisions traditionally reserved for those with mild intellectual disability. A definite policy has been formulated to close special classes and the use of individualized intelligence testing has been largely discontinued as a basis for establishing special educational need‐‐thus ostensibly providing greater flexibility for service allocation. The term “backward” (the traditional term for mild intellectual disability in New Zealand) has been rejected, and children with mild intellectual disability are now included in a new category “children with educational and social difficulties"‐‐a category which also includes children with specific learning difficulties, those with mild sensory disabilities, and those with mild emotional/behavioural difficulties. It is argued that available resources are grossly insufficient to provide high quality special educational services for all “children with educational and social difficulties,” that the decision to close special classes represents a premature and unsound reduction in the range of options available to children with mild intellectual disability, and that research into the effects of current policies on the lives of learners with mild intellectual disability and their families is urgently required but will now be very difficult to undertake.     

Effects of job-embedded professional development on inclusion of students with disabilities in content area classrooms: results of a three-year study

During the mid-1990s, members of the global education community issued the Salamanca Statement that described inclusive schools as effective educational environments that also combat discrimination. Since that time, considerable progress has been made in moving students with disabilities from separate placements to inclusive settings. In the USA, nearly 10% of the school-aged population needs special education services and of that group, 96% are educated in general education classrooms 80% of the time. Placement of such large numbers of students with disabilities has increased the diversity of the student body and the complexity of teaching of core curriculum. For teachers and students to be successful, teachers need on-going professional development. This paper explores the efficacy of a Job-Embedded Professional Development (JEPD) model in six schools (urban, suburban and rural) that had made a commitment towards including all students with significant disabilities in general education core curriculum. Results are discussed for the six schools as well as for students identified as displaying behaviour disorders, autism or intellectual disabilities.     

A comparison of social skills in Turkish children with visual impairments,children with intellectual impairments and typically developing children

The purpose of this study was to compare the social skills of five groups of children: children with visual impairments attending inclusive education schools, children with visual impairments attending schools for the blind, children with intellectual impairments attending inclusive education schools, children with intellectual impairments attending segregated special education schools, and typically developing children. A hundred and sixty-nine children aged from 7 to 12 participated in the study. The children's social skills were rated by their teachers on the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) – Turkish Form. The results suggested significant group differences between children attending inclusive education schools and children attending special education schools. Analysis of the findings indicated that children with visual impairments and children with intellectual impairments had poorer social skills than typically developing children; however children with visual impairments and children with intellectual impairments attending inclusive education schools had higher social skills than children attending segregated special education schools. The findings of the study were discussed and suggestions for future research were provided.     

Working towards inclusion: Reflections from the classroom

This article explores developments towards inclusive education being undertaken in some schools in India. Drawing on data collected through interviews with key professionals working in schools and classroom observations, the study focused on the practices and experiences of professionals involved in these efforts. Findings suggest that these schools had provided access to children who would otherwise have been denied admission to the mainstream due to their disabilities. However, these children remained the ‘included’ children and did not necessarily become a part of the classroom. Thus, evident in these schools were a range of exclusionary practices that continued to exist alongside efforts towards inclusion. I therefore argue that there is not only a need to provide stakeholders with the knowledge and skills for developing inclusive teaching practices, but also a need to challenge existing values, beliefs and attitudes to ensure the full participation of all children in the curriculum and culture of their school setting.     

大龄智障学生职业教育康复的理念与实践

坚持对大龄智障学生进行职业教育康复,为其提供多种服务与支持,可以减轻障碍对他们造成的不利影响,使他们提高社会生存本领和就业机会,更好更快地融入社会,适应社会。本文阐述了北京市某培智学校某职教部在职业教育阶段对大龄智障学生进行职业教育康复的理念、实践及效果,希望能对同类学校或机构开展相应的工作有所启发。     

Supporting Disability Education through a Combination of Special Schools and Disability-Inclusive Schools in the Pacific Islands

This article reports on a multi-method study of the ways in which special and mainstream schools support the educational needs of children with disabilities in Fiji. The aims of the study were: (1) to identify capacity and functions of special schools to support inclusive mainstream schools for children with disabilities; and (2) to explore the capacity of mainstream disability-inclusive schools in meeting the needs of children with disabilities. Results from the special education survey indicated that type of disability, geographic location and controlling authority were associated with transition to mainstream education. Findings from the action research study suggest that supportive school leadership and positive attitudes towards disability and inclusion contribute to greater mobilisation of supporting resources. However, limitations in facilities and resources currently pose barriers which prevent inclusion for all students with disabilities. Together, these findings indicate that special and inclusive mainstream schools jointly support disability-inclusive education in Fiji.     

Leadership for inclusion: a comparison of international practices

The issue of inclusion is high on the educational reform agenda in many countries. Set within the context of the United Nations organisation's push for ‘Education for All’, the aim is to find ways of increasing the participation and learning of pupils who are vulnerable to marginalisation within existing educational arrangements ( World Education Forum, 2000 ). In the United States, inclusive education is generally thought of as an approach to serving children with disabilities within general education settings. Internationally, however, it is sometimes seen more broadly as a reform that supports and welcomes diversity among all learners ( Ainscow, 1999 ). The research reported in this paper adopts this broadened formulation. It presumes that the aim of inclusive education is to eliminate social exclusion and that is a consequence of attitudes and responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity, religion, gender and ability ( Vitello & Mithaug, 1998 ). Children with disabilities and others seen as having special educational needs are part of this agenda. The paper focuses specifically on the implications of these developments for leadership roles in schools. In particular, it uses evidence from case studies of leadership practice in three countries to address the question, what types of leadership practice foster inclusion in schools? The paper provides a theoretical framework that throws light on what is involved in such practices and presents illustrative examples. The aim is to provide an analysis that will be of direct relevance to practitioners, whilst at the same time adding to theory. The examples of leadership that are examined were found in schools in England, Portugal, and the United States that serve culturally and linguistically diverse groups of children, including significant numbers from low‐income families. In each of the schools, children with disabilities and others categorised as having special educational needs are taught in general education classrooms alongside their peers.     

Prediction of School Enrolment of Children with Intellectual Disabilities in Kenya: The role of parents' expectations,beliefs, and education

The purpose of this study was to develop a logistic regression model for the prediction of school enrolment of Kenyan children with intellectual disabilities. The initial set of predictors included three demographic variables (child's gender, child's level of intellectual disability, and parents' level of education) and six factors of parents' expectations and beliefs about future outcomes and education of children with intellectual disabilities. Previous research implicated some of these concepts in school enrolment of children with disabilities in African countries without providing a particular prediction model. The hypothesised factor structure of the instrument developed in this study was tested by using a confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis. A stepwise logistic regression was conducted with the initial model including all nine predictors of school enrolment of children with intellectual disabilities in Kenya. Significant predictors in the final logistic regression model were (a) parents' expectations about social acceptance of the child, (b) parents' bias against educating children with intellectual disabilities, (c) parents' beliefs about a segregated school option, (d) parents' beliefs about the appropriateness of the child's school education, and (e) parents' level of education.     

La Transición: parent perspectives on transition for Latino youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities

The transition to adulthood can be a challenging time for adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Its complexity, however, may be magnified for families who have immigrated to the United States. This study examined the transition expectations and experiences of six first-generation, Latino parents and their transition-aged (14–22) children with intellectual disability, autism, and/or multiple disabilities. Through individual interviews held in Spanish or English, parents offered insights into (1) their visions of success for their child, (2) the distinct barriers they face as immigrant families, and (3) their suggestions for schools and adult agencies related to supporting strong transitions. Their portraits of desired outcomes were quite individualized and reflected high expectations. Factors identified as inhibiting successful transitions included persistent language barriers, the views of certain professionals and community members, and exclusion from typical school experiences. Parents encouraged schools to support family advocacy, foster greater student independence, expand adult programming, and reduce segregated educational placements. We present implications for educators on working with Latino families, as well as offer recommendations for future research.     

Inclusion of pupils with intellectual disabilities: primary school teachers' attitudes and willingness in a rural area in Uganda

Teachers in regular schools have a responsibility to accommodate the needs and interests of all learners. The attitudes and willingness of teachers to include learners with intellectual disabilities in their classes in regular schools in a district with a semi-nomadic pastoral population in north-eastern Uganda was investigated. A survey of 125 school teachers was conducted, using an attitude scale and a willingness sub-scale. The results showed slightly more positive than negative attitudes, and more willingness than unwillingness to teach learners with intellectual disabilities. Attendance of workshops and seminars had a positive impact on teacher attitudes and willingness towards inclusive education. The findings are discussed with reference to historical–cultural characteristics of the district, as well as pupil and teacher characteristics.     

Educators’ perceptions of learners with intellectual disabilities’ sexual knowledge and behaviour in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Over the past two decades, comprehensive sexuality education has increasingly been recognised as a measure that positively impacts on the sexual behaviour of young people in Africa. Despite this, and a political call to scale-up the use of comprehensive sexuality education in schools in South Africa, learners with disabilities continue to be left behind. Besides contending with negative hegemonic constructs of disabled sexualities, educators of learners with disabilities lack skills and resources to teach sexuality in accessible formats. Based on this premise, a comprehensive sexuality education approach – Breaking the Silence – was developed and piloted to assist educators of learners with disabilities to provide access to comprehensive sexuality education in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This article presents results from the formative evaluation of this pilot work and discusses educators’ perceptions of their learners with intellectual disabilities’ sexual knowledge, agency and behaviour after implementing the approach. Although educators appeared to situate learners with intellectual disabilities as sexual agents, their implementation of the approach was dependent on the cognitive ability of learners, and discourses of culture, gender and protection from violence.