国际滑联花样滑冰新旧裁判评分系统的比较

通过2002年盐湖城冬奥会花样滑冰双人滑比赛中出现的裁判争议及2006年都灵冬奥会我国选手张丹/张昊夺得奥运会银牌的实例,采用数据统计、对比分析结合裁判评分等方法,以国际滑联花样滑冰双人滑评分规则为例,在深入研究国际滑联裁判评分系统新旧规则的不同之后,发现新旧规则评分系统之间差别很大。国际滑联修改规则的直接原因是要杜绝裁判在评分过程中的舞弊行为,但规则的改变也代表了国际滑联对花样滑冰运动发展方向的认识,即兼顾花样滑冰运动本身的特点与评分系统公平、客观之间的平衡。经过研究得出结论:在对今后我国花样滑冰运动的训练、比赛中,应该坚持技术领先的发展道路,在此基础上提高运动员的艺术表现力等综合实力。     

A Method for Identification of Some Components of Judging Springboard Diving

Abstract

This article presents a method to analyze the scoring of judges in springboard diving by identifying some of the components of a dive which are useful in predicting the scores of the judges. A videotape recording of 26 divers doing the front dive half-twist was made at the 1979 men's A.A.U. prequalifying meet, held at Ohio State University. The method of measurement involved the use of clear plastic grids placed over the video monitor. The maximum height of the diver above the board, distance out from the board, size and duration of splash, numerous body angles at various times during the dive, as well as deviation of twist from 180 degrees were measured. A Stepwise Multiple Regression program was used to generate a prediction equation using a subset of these variables which would best predict the total score of the judges for each dive. The equation generated included height, distance, twist, and lower body angle at the point when the diver's head was opposite the board; the equation predicted the scores of the judges with a multiple correlation coefficient R = .80. The particular variables identified would of course be different for other types of dives, and might very well differ for a new set of data for the front dive half twist. However, the method presented provides the diving community with a procedure for identifying some of the components in a particular dive that partially explain what is in the judge's mind.     

Scoring Bias in Springboard and Platform Diving: A Bayesian Approach to Revision of DD Tables

Abstract

Springboard and platform diving, unlike other sports competitions that use absolute performance measures, relies instead on a panel of judges to assess the aesthetic and technical quality of the athlete's performance. Using data from the 1983 U.S.A. Indoor Diving Nationals, regression analysis was used to determine if there was a statistically significant relationship between degree of difficulty (DD) and scores awarded for a dive. Surprisingly, the analysis revealed that as divers attempted higher degree of difficulty dives, judges became less inclined to award lower scores. Even though the average scores were lower for high DD dives, they were not low enough to compensate for the higher DD rating. Further analysis revealed that the women's competition had less scoring bias towards high DD dives than the men's competition. Even a small amount of scoring bias towards high DD dives is important since typically small total point differences in scores separate the finishing order of divers at a national or international competition. Bayesian analysis, based upon actual diver performance at national and international competitions, is suggested as one method of dealing with the problem of scoring bias towards high DD dives. Using this approach, probability of a score given the DD [P(DD/Score)] is derived from the initially observed P(Scores/DD). Monte Carlo methods can then be used to simulate large numbers of divers performing at each DD level to obtain more precise DD measures for a particular dive.     

中华人民共和国第10届运动会体操比赛裁判员评分的客观性分析

通过对中华人民共和国第10届运动会体操比赛部分比赛项目的评分数据进行客观性分析发现,裁判员个体间的评分标准差异显著,评分随机误差较大,评分结果的区分度不高。说明裁判员执法水平尚显不足,责任意识较薄弱,影响了比赛结果的客观性和可信度。建议严格执行裁判员考核和遴选制度,改进评分方法和误差处理方法,强化执法责任意识,端正执法态度。     

Gaze Behavior of Gymnastics Judges: Where Do Experienced Judges and Gymnasts Look While Judging?

Gymnastics judges and former gymnasts have been shown to be quite accurate in detecting errors and accurately judging performance. Purpose: The purpose of the current study was to examine if this superior judging performance is reflected in judges’ gaze behavior. Method: Thirty-five judges were asked to judge 21 gymnasts who performed a skill on the vault in a video-based test. Classifying 1 sample on 2 different criteria, judging performance and gaze behavior were compared between judges with a higher license level and judges with a lower license level and between judges who were able to perform the skill (specific motor experience [SME]) and those who were not. Results: The results revealed better judging performance among judges with a higher license level compared with judges with a lower license level and more fixations on the gymnast during the whole skill and the landing phase, specifically on the head and arms of the gymnast. Specific motor experience did not result in any differences in judging performance; however, judges with SME showed similar gaze patterns to those of judges with a high license level, with 1 difference in their increased focus on the gymnasts’ feet. Conclusion: Superior judging performance seems to be reflected in a specific gaze behavior. This gaze behavior appears to partly stem from judges’ own sensorimotor experiences for this skill and reflects the gymnasts’ perspective onto the skill.     

2005年世界花样滑冰大奖赛中国杯冰上舞蹈技术分析

通过对2005年中国杯世界花样滑冰大奖赛冰上舞蹈参赛选手的现场观察、技术动作统计、录像分析并结合专家裁判组给分,研究我国选手在规定舞、创编舞和自由舞3项比赛中的技术和比赛成绩,将获得3项比赛的第1、3、6、9名选手与我国选手进行比较和分析,发现我国选手现阶段与第9名以色列选手(AlexandraZaretski/RomanZaretski)在技术方面相近,在节目内容方面尚有不足。同时探究新裁判系统规则,促进冰上舞蹈项目向“难”、“新”、“稳”、“美”、“准”的方向发展。提出建议,为我国冰上舞蹈今后的训练提供参考。     

Developing a Rasch Measurement Physical Fitness Scale for Hong Kong Primary School-Aged Students

The main purpose of this study was to develop a Rasch Measurement Physical Fitness Scale (RMPFS) based on physical fitness indicators routinely used in Hong Kong primary schools. A total of 9,439 records of students' performances on physical fitness indicators, retrieved from the database of a Hong Kong primary school, were used to develop the Rasch scale. Following a series of iterative Rasch analyses that adopted the “data should fit the model” approach, four physical fitness indicators (i.e., 6-min run, 9-min run, 1-min sit-ups, and dominant handgrip) were successfully calibrated to form the RMPFS. The RMPFS and its scale indicators showed fit to the Rasch model sufficient for the intended purposes of measuring the overall fitness of children. The overall physical fitness measure reflects children's fitness on three key core components of physical fitness (i.e., cardio-respiratory fitness, muscular endurance, and muscular strength). Advantages of the RMPFS are discussed, and recommendations for future research follow. The findings of this study provide a better knowledge basis for interpreting children's physical fitness assessment results.     

Reliability and validity of judging in women's artistic gymnastics at University Games 2009

Abstract

The aim of our research was to analyse the reliability and validity of judging on all women's apparatuses and all sessions (qualification, all round finals and apparatus finals) at the World University Games-Universiade 2009 in Belgrade. For validity assessment, mean absolute and rank deviations of judges’ execution scores were calculated. For consistency and reliability assessment, Cronbach's alpha coefficient, intra-class correlations, Armor's theta and Kendall's W coefficient were calculated. Vault and floor exercise finals were the sessions with the highest scores and the lowest score dispersion. The overall highest individual judge average absolute deviation was 0.34 point and the largest mean rank deviation was 0.88 with most values well below this. A correlation matrix for between-judge correlations identified three judges (out of 20) in the apparatus finals sessions with remarkably inferior correlations with others. Except for vault and floor finals, the results in terms of consistency (Cronbach's alpha mostly above 0.95) and reliability (Armor's theta mostly above 0.94, intra-class correlation for single and average measures above 0.87 and 0.94, respectively) were satisfactory. In conclusion, overall high values of reliability and consistency indices were found. Sessions where the variability between competitors is low (such as vault and floor finals in this competition) should be inspected with special care in future judging analyses.     

Judges in judo conform to the referee because of the reactive feedback system

Abstract

This experiment tested whether the conformism observed among panels of judges in aesthetic sports also occurs among judges in judo. Similar to aesthetic sports, judo judging relies upon a form of open feedback. However, in judo, this system is reactive (i.e. two judges have to publicly ‘correct’ the score given by the higher-status referee), whereas it is active in aesthetic sports (i.e. judges with equal status report their score simultaneously and can use the feedback about the scores of their colleagues for evaluating later performances). In order to test whether such reactive open-feedback system leads to conformism among judges in judo, we designed an experiment in which this feedback was manipulated. Participants were 20 certified Flemish judges, who had to score two sets of 11 ambiguous video sequences that are used during formation and training of judo judges: one set with feedback about the referee's score and one set without feedback. The results revealed that when participants knew the referee's score, their scores were significantly more in line with this score than when they did not know this score. More specifically, for both sets of sequences at least 10% less deviations from the referee were observed when participants were given feedback about the score of the referee. These results suggest that preventable conformism can occur in typical judo judging, that is with reactive open feedback.     

The Disappearance of the Perfect 10: Evaluating Rule Changes in Women's Artistic Gymnastics

The 2004 Olympic Games saw a range of judging scandals in the sport of artistic gymnastics that prompted the International Gymnastics Federation to make changes to the sport's judging system. Therefore, following these games, the International Gymnastics Federation reworked the gymnastics scoring system, where the most prominent change was the removal of the ‘perfect 10’ as the highest score possible, to be replaced by an open-ended scoring system. The goal of this paper is to examine the effectiveness of the open-ended system that was introduced in 2006 through examining some of the sport's key values – an approach loosely aligned with broad internalism. It is suggested that the dual purposes of analysing what is achieved and the manner of achieving it are key values of the sport and are differentiated through the way judging utilises two categories known, in gymnastics, as ‘difficulty’ and ‘artistry’. This paper argues that the method of judging ‘difficulty’ is an improvement on previous judging methods. Our analysis of the definition and judging of ‘artistry’ in artistic gymnastics, however, reveals a less certain result.     

世界杯短道速滑比赛形式的变化与编排程序

世界杯短道速滑比赛是国际滑联的重大赛事之一,随着短道速滑运动项目的发展,2006年国际滑联对短道速滑世界杯比赛的规则和形式进行了重大的改变,并在中国长春举行了变化后的第1次比赛。现将此次比赛中的有关规定及工作方法介绍给大家,仅为广大的运动员、教练员和裁判员了解比赛的形式和程序,提供借鉴与参考。     

Rasch calibration and optimal categorization of an instrument measuring women's exercise perseverance and barriers

The purposes of this study were: (a) to determine the optimal categorization of an instrument measuring women's exercise perseverance and barriers using the Rasch analysis and (b) to examine urban women's exercise perseverance and barriers. A 23-item barrier instrument with five response categories was administered to 479 women from a metropolitan area. The data analysis started from collapsing the original five adjacent categories into three and four categories and 11 sets of original and collapsed data were analyzed using the Rasch rating scale model. The model-data fit, category and separation statistics, and parameter estimates provided by Rasch analyses were used to determine the optimal categorization of the instrument. Instead of the original five-category construct, which had a disordered internal construct, a collapsed three-category construct (i.e., Very Often/Often, Sometimes/Rarely, and Never) was found to have the optimal categorization. The time barrier domain was found to be the most severe barrier domain, but the barrier "lack of self-discipline" was the most severe individual barrier. Rasch calibration provides a new way to construct an instrument with optimal categorization, to describe the nature of barrier items and the respondents' attribute being measured, and to develop a practical and informative scoring sheet.     

现代田径竞赛裁判工作的主要特征

运用文献资料法和调查访问法等研究方法,对田径竞赛裁判工作的现状和特征进行了探讨,分析了现代田径竞赛所具有的比赛项目多、参赛运动员多、竞赛时间持续长、竞赛成绩判定客观性强的现状,提出了田径竞赛裁判工作具有裁判分工专业化、裁判方法电子化、裁判工作程序化、成绩评判科学化、场地器材高科技化和裁判员队伍大型集团的六大特征.     

对影响我院初级篮球裁判员判罚准确性主要因素的调查与分析

采用问卷调查法、文献资料法、访谈法、统计分析法对影响我院初级篮球裁判员在判罚准确性的主要因素进行分析。通过现场观看和前辈指导,以及对裁判规则的熟悉、对裁判法的掌握及运用、临场实践、执法心理的提高,从而培养高水平篮球裁判员。     

Measurement in speed skating tournaments

Twenty principal components analyses were performed on the results of 10 European and 10 World male speed skating championships. The first principal component obtained was defined as ‘the ability to skate well at all tournament distances’. Therefore the rank order of the participants’ skating ability could be estimated in an alternative way to allow validation of the scoring method currently in force. This validity coefficient turned out to be so high (r = 0.967) that it does not seem necessary to adopt a more sophisticated method, despite a few demonstrable shortcomings of the one in use. However, there remains a considerable proportion of variance (10–34%) that can not be explained by systematic aspects of skating ability.     

A Golf Knowledge Test

Abstract

Gymnastics coaches typically place their gymnasts in a rank order from poorest to best for competition in each event. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the scores of nationally certified gymnastics judges were influenced by this expected placement of gymnasts within a team order of competition. The Team Optional Session of the 1973 Big Eight Gymnastics Meet was videotaped. Twelve nationally certified gymnastics judges, randomly selected from within three geographical locations of the United States, scored gymnastics routines on each of two sets of videotapes, edited from the original tapes, in two sessions separated by 48 hr. The videotapes were so edited that within-team orders of competition were reversed in one or the other of the two sets of videotapes for selected teams in each event. In this manner, scores were collected for 40 routines, each of which appeared both first and fourth in the withinteam orders of competition. A 2 × 12 × 2 ANOVA revealed that (1) a gymnast performing the same routine is at a significant (p < .05) scoring advantage if he is judged as the fourth competitor for his team rather than the first competitor, and (2) regional differences existed among the scores awarded by gymnastics judges.     

花样滑冰单人滑规则变化的实质——普鲁申科与雷萨切克2010年冬奥会比赛成绩比较

在2010年温哥华冬奥会男子单人滑比赛中,雷萨切克在技术难度低于对手的情况下战胜了普鲁申科,将各国对花样滑冰规则变化的不同看法推向台前。采用文献资料法和录像观察法对比赛成绩单和比赛视频进行研究,对2010年冬奥会花样滑冰男子单人滑冠、亚军的技术、编排和表现进行分析,并进一步探讨花样滑冰规则变化的实质和趋势。认为2004年以来实行的新裁判系统促进了旋转和步法技术的发展,抑制了跳跃技术的发展。指出2010年以后规则将再一次修改,将鼓励跳跃技术难度的发展;规则的变更遵循了花样滑冰项目的规律,进一步促进了花样滑冰项目的发展,有利于花样滑冰项目的发展。     

Skating

Technical evaluation in the sport of figure skating is characterized by a subjective marking system. Figure skating judges are responsible for quickly and accurately discerning the quality of technical elements as well as assigning a score to the overall aesthetic appearance of a performance. Traditionally, overall placement marks are assigned for the entire performance; however, the landing of a jump is widely acknowledged as one of the most critical elements of a skater's program. Therefore, our aims were to identify the biomechanical variables that contribute to technical success in executing landings and to establish whether landings rated as biomechanically optimal are also awarded high technical merit scores by judges. Ten nationally ranked competitive figure skaters were asked to execute on‐ice, double and triple revolution jumps and to try to land the jumps void of technical faults within a calibrated space. Data were collected at 60 Hz using standard three‐dimensional videography. Data reduction was done using the APAS system (Ariel Dynamics Inc). Concurrently, videotapes were viewed and evaluated by 42 accredited judges to determine the perceived technical quality of the landing performances. Judges were asked to evaluate the landing phase of each jump against a landing criteria document. A comparative criteria model was developed to facilitate an assessment of excellence in landing performances through both empirical and subjective analyses. Results of these analyses were twofold: a biomechanical profile of on‐ice landings was obtained, and on‐ice jump landing strategies rated by empirical evaluations were in agreement with judge's perceptions of the same performances.     

Analysis of Gymnastics Judges' Visual Search

Abstract

This study was designed to investigate the visual search patterns of gymnastics judges. The subjects were four national judges (experienced) and three local judges (novice). Three dependent variables were measured: the number and the location of ocular fixations during the evaluation of a gymnast's performance, and the number of errors made by the judges. Ocular fixations were studied by the corneal reflection technique with a NAC Eye-Movement Recorder. There was no statistical difference in the number of fixations for both groups of judges. However, the expert judges had 27% less fixations than the novice judges. A statistical difference was found between expert judges and novice judges for the location of fixations; experts had more fixations on the upper part of the gymnast's body, while novices concentrated their attention on the legs. The type of routine significantly affected the number of fixations; more fixations were found for optional routines. There was no statistical difference in the number of judgment errors made by the two groups of judges. However, novice judges detected only half the gymnast's errors detected by the expert judges.     

Application of functional principal component analysis in race walking: An emerging methodology

This study considered the problem of identifying and evaluating the factors of individual performance during race walking. In particular, the study explored the use of functional principal component analysis (f-PCA), a multivariate data analysis, for assessing and classifying the kinematics and kinetics of the knee joint in competitive race walkers. Seven race walkers of international and national level participated to the study. An optoelectronic system and a force platform were used to capture three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics of lower limbs during the race walking cycle. Functional principal component analysis was applied bilaterally to the sagittal knee angle and net moment data, because knee joint motion is fundamental to race walking technique. Scatterplots of principal component scores provided evidence of athletes' technical differences and asymmetries even when traditional analysis (mean ± s curves) was not effective. Principal components provided indications for race walkers' classification and identified potentially important technical differences between higher and lower skilled athletes. Therefore, f-PCA might represent a future aid for the fine analysis of sports movements, if consistently applied to performance monitoring.