The Learner's Prior Knowledge: a Critical Review of Techniques for Probing its Organization

Science education is presented as the negotiation of knowledge between several different perspectives: those provided by ‘scientists’ science’, ‘ curricular science’, ‘teachers’ science’, ‘children's science’ and ‘students’ science’. A case study based on concepts of force and movement is used to illuminate these perspectives, and implications for the curricular presentation and classroom teaching of the ideas are discussed.     

Fostering collaborative teacher learning: A typology of school leadership

Previous research indicates that supportive school leadership is a key condition of collaborative teacher learning. The purpose of this study was to develop a typology of how school leaders foster collaborative teacher learning. We adopted an integrative perspective on leadership by examining both learning-centred leadership and distributed leadership practices that are supportive of collaborative teacher learning. Data were gathered by means of interviews with ten school leaders and a questionnaire that was completed by 39 teachers from six secondary schools in the Netherlands. The aim of the interviews was to identify to what extent school leaders applied learning-centred leadership and distributed leadership practices. The questionnaire measured teachers' perceptions of the role of school leaders in teacher learning. As an outcome of this study, we constructed a typology that provides insights into how school leaders foster collaborative teacher learning. Four types of school leaders were distinguished: (a) integrators of teacher learning, (b) facilitators of teacher learning, (c) managers of teacher learning, and (d) managers of daily school practice. Our findings suggest that integration of learning-centred leadership and distributed leadership practices can help school leaders to support collaborative teacher learning.     

The spectrum of school–university partnerships: A typology of organizational learning systems

School–university partnerships are not uni-dimensional projects. Success in these partnerships can be found in loosely-coupled systems such as client–server partnerships and in more tightly-coupled systems such as collaborative development centers. Using a comparative case study approach, we explore two school–university partnership case studies and propose a framework for identifying and evaluating partnerships as learning systems. The structure of the partnership has implications for the focus of organizational learning initiatives that can form the foundation of sustained, systemic internal evaluation.     

变易理论:学生自主学习和教师帮助之间的关系

本研究旨在运用变易理论来考察学生自主学习和教师帮助之间的关系问题.使用的教学方法是这样的:教师首先使用具体事例,然后讲授原理.其中在使用具体事例时有两种方法.第一种是,学生学习两方面属性同时不同的事例.第二种是,学生先是学习只有一方面属性不同的事例,接着学习只有另一方面属性不同的事例,最后学习两方面属性同时不同的事例.在这之后的讲授是一样的,教师教学生如何系统地解决这一类问题.在第一种方法中,学生更多地掌控了自身的学习,而在第二种方法中,教师通过教学设计来帮助学生学习.这个研究最重要的启示是在讨论教学中教师和学生各自对学习的贡献时,我们可能需要做出更细致的区分.问题不在于谁应该主动谁应该被动,而在于教师应该做什么(创造学习的必要条件)以及学生应该做什么(使用学习的必要条件).     

Teachers' Conceptions of Education: A Practical Knowledge Perspective on 'Good' Teaching

Research on teachers' practical knowledge is considered to be an alternative to several other research approaches to teaching which study teaching from a limited point of view and from an outsider's perspective, often with the aim of exerting control over teachers. It is argued that research on teachers' practical knowledge takes into account in a better way what really matters in teaching because it emphasizes the knowledge and beliefs of teachers themselves about teaching. In this study, the issue of 'good' teaching is highlighted from a perspective on teaching based on teachers' practical knowledge. The conceptions of education of eight experienced teachers were investigated with a multi-methodical approach. Teachers' conceptions of education consist of their views on the objectives of education, the contents of the curriculum, and the role of the teacher and the students in the teaching and learning process. Several contextual factors and teachers' interpretations of these factors seem to exert influence on teachers' conceptions of education, such as the schools in which they work, the characteristics of the students and subjects they teach, and general developments in society. It is concluded that it is difficult to give a precise definition of good teaching from a practical knowledge perspective because of the personal and context-embeddedness of teachers' practical knowledge. However, the results indicate that research on teachers' practical knowledge adds new information to the discussion of good teaching when compared with the results of more traditional research approaches to teaching.     

Conceptions of learning and approaches to learning in Portuguese students

The article describes a study that attempted to characterise Portuguese students’ conceptions of learning and approaches to learning. A sample of university students answered open questions on the meaning, process and context of learning. Results, derived from content analysis, replicate most conceptions of learning described by phenomenographical research (i.e. distinction between learning as memorisation and learning as comprehension). Moreover, new variants of known conceptions of learning emerged (e.g. learning occurs through: exploratory practice; learning to learn; motivation) and an apparently new conception (i.e. learning as understanding and application). The same sample answered a questionnaire which attempted to measure motivation and learning strategies. Through factorial analysis of results it was possible to confirm the presence of three well-known approaches to learning: surface, deep and achieving.     

论先前知识与英语阅读教学

在英语教学中学习者的先前知识,或图式知识是影响外语学习的重要因素。因此能否激活图式至关重要。图式包括三种形式:语言图式,内容图式和形式图式。传统"自下而上"和"自上而下"的阅读模式只强调其中某一种图式的激活,交替模式则主张将两种模式结合的阅读模式。因此,在英语阅读教学种教师不仅要注重激活学生的语言图式,更要注重其内容和形式图式的激活。     

鸦片战争前西人对广州的认识

鸦片战争前由于特殊的对外政策，“海上丝绸之路”的起点——广州，成为当时中外交流的前沿。西人对广州的认识，也是对中国的认识。西人对广州的自然环境、民俗生活、经济贸易状况都褒扬有加，而对广州的官僚制度则提出批评。从总体看，西人认为广州是他们实现利益和野心的地方。     

Conceptions of learning and pedagogy: developing trainee teachers' epistemological understandings

This work has a particular focus on exposing important connections between trainee teachers' personal beliefs about knowledge (epistemological beliefs) and their conceptions of learning. These, the authors argue, are central to the assumptions which underpin their pedagogy when working with children in school. The link between these constructs emerged as key issues during a collaborative research project between five practitioners across two universities which explored the use of a ‘learning to learn’ (L2L) approach with a particular emphasis on postgraduate ITT courses. This seems particularly pertinent to expanding the capacity to learn of trainees, yet, to date, it has received little attention within research on L2L, given its more immediate focus within the school setting. The authors believe, however, that the climate is now ripe for research focusing on the context of lifelong learning, in particular teacher trainee learning in ITT. They argue that a focus on the role of epistemology in helping to shape teaching approaches is likely to be a key element in developing students with a capacity to reflect critically on practice.     

Creative Knowledge: The Centrality of Creativity in Teachers’ Conceptions of Subject English

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the notion of creativity as a core concept in English teachers’ knowledge and valuing of their subject. It draws on research from a broader investigation into teachers as writers and discusses one of the key findings of the study: that creativity is not only crucial to how teachers approach their pedagogy and subject content, but that contexts in which creativity is minimised in English teachers’ lives results in struggle or even a departure from the profession. The paper concludes with a call for teachers and bureaucrats to affirm creative knowledge as foundational to English teachers and their profession, and the ability of teacher narratives to offer a powerful contribution to debates in English teaching.     

Accessing Prior Knowledge to Remember Text: A Comparison of Advance Organizers and Maps

Two theories, schema and dual coding, and the conjoint retention model were contrasted to explain the role of geographic familiarity and prior knowledge in map-passage retention. One hundred, eighty-six college students listened to a passage taking place in either a familiar or unfamiliar geographic domain and viewed either a map or no map of either of the two geographic areas. One-third of each group received either a general or specific advance organizer of the passage topic, or no organizer at all. Results revealed that maps function to bridge what learners already know about an area and what they need to remember from a passage. However, prior knowledge of geography is activated by the geographic propositions contained in a passage, with or without a map. Thus, maps serve a mnemonic function of imagery, but learners' prior knowledge of the geography of the map's space mediates the value of the map. Learners are able to generate an image of the map themselves if there are locational markers in the passage, and the geography of those markers are familiar.     

Faculty Grading of Quantitative Problems: A Mismatch between Values and Practice

Grading practices can send a powerful message to students about course expectations. A study by Henderson et al. (American Journal of Physics 72:164–169, 2004) in physics education has identified a misalignment between what college instructors say they value and their actual scoring of quantitative student solutions. This work identified three values that guide grading decisions: (1) a desire to see students’ reasoning, (2) a readiness to deduct points from solutions with obvious errors and a reluctance to deduct points from solutions that might be correct, and (3) a tendency to assume correct reasoning when solutions are ambiguous. These authors propose that when values are in conflict, the conflict is resolved by placing the burden of proof on either the instructor or the student. Here, we extend the results of the physics study to earth science (n?=?7) and chemistry (n?=?10) instructors in a think-aloud interview study. Our results suggest that both the previously identified three values and the misalignment between values and grading practices exist among science faculty more generally. Furthermore, we identified a fourth value not previously recognized. Although all of the faculty across both studies stated that they valued seeing student reasoning, the combined effect suggests that only 49% of faculty across the three disciplines graded work in such a way that would actually encourage students to show their reasoning, and 34% of instructors could be viewed as penalizing students for showing their work. This research may contribute toward a better alignment between values and practice in faculty development.     

Mathematical Flexibility: Aspects of a Continuum and the Role of Prior Knowledge

Abstract

Psychologists and mathematics educators have long viewed flexibility as critical to students’ mathematical development. In this paper, we focused on the multidimensional nature of flexibility to better understand how preference, knowledge, and use of effective methods for solving algebra problems are related. In Study 1, we identified research-based aspects of flexibility with algebra and assessed students on them following a two-step equations unit. Results indicated that certain aspects of flexibility develop prior to others and that prior knowledge of algebra plays a significant role in that development. Study 2 confirmed and elaborated on these results using a larger sample size. Implications for theory and for supporting flexibility in classrooms are discussed.     

Policy Shifts in Language-Minority Education: A Mismatch between Politics and Pedagogy

Sustainable educational leadership—leadership which leaves a legacy that lasts beyond the leader's professional lifetime—is very much in fashion nowadays. A recent edition of this journal was devoted entirely to the topic (Hargreaves 2005a). However, it is important to ensure that, together with leadership itself, the impact of leadership is sustainable. The self-aggrandizement, silver bullets, short-term big-bang approaches, procedural illusions, witch hunts, failures to communicate, and lack of accountability evident in the story of the building of the Swedish 17th century warship, the Vasa, do not sit well with sustainable and effective leadership. In this article, lessons learned from the Vasa are compared and contrasted with those put forward by the contributors to the recent themed edition of this journal. The authors then identify what they believe, on the basis of North American and international research evidence, to be the emerging priorities for sustainable and effective educational leadership.     

The Inter-relationship of Science and Religion: A typology of engagement

This study explores whether the religious background of students affects their opinions about and attitudes to engaging with scientific explanations of the origins of the universe and of life. The study took place in four English secondary schools representing three different contexts (Christian faith-based; non-faith with majority Muslim catchment; and non-faith, mixed catchment). It comprised questionnaires and focus groups with over 200 students aged 14–16, supplemented by teacher interviews. The analysis approach was informed by grounded theory and resulted in the development of an engagement typology, which has been set in the context of the cross-cultural border crossing literature. It divides students into categories depending on both the nature and amount of engagement they were prepared to have with the relationship between science and religion. The model takes into account where students sit on four dimensions. These assess whether a student's preferred knowledge base is belief-based or fact-based; their tolerance of uncertainty (do they have a need for resolution?); their open mindedness (are they unquestioning or inquiring?); and whether they conceptualise science and religion as being in conflict or harmony. Many Muslim students resisted engagement because of conflicting religious beliefs. Teachers did not always appreciate the extent to which this topic troubled some students who needed help to accommodate clashes between science and their religious beliefs. It is suggested that increased appreciation of the complexity represented by their students can guide a teacher towards an appropriate approach when covering potentially sensitive topics such as the theory of evolution.     

The Principle of Assumed Consent: The Ethics of Gatekeeping

The obligation to inform and obtain the consent of human subjects is axiomatic in social and medical research. Yet educational researchers are often reluctant to inform their subjects: class teachers and headteachers, for example, are often used as gatekeepers, and investigators sometimes do not so much seek consent as assume it. This chapter discusses the principle of informed consent, in particular that of children. It proposes guidelines for gatekeepers who may be called upon to authorise research and to grant to investigators access to children in their care.     

Teaching Knowledge Application: Advances in Theoretical Conceptions and their Professional Implications

We describe and examine a view of knowledge application in schooling developed from aspects of contemporary learning theory. To situate our perspective in contemporary practice, we establish the significance of the issue of knowledge application as an educational challenge. We then review some enduring theoretical conceptions of the problem and their educational ramifications following which we introduce some developments in educational learning theory and consider their implications for teaching knowledge application.     

拟亲属称谓的翻译与文化的关联

拟亲属称谓是一种比较特殊的社交指示语。通过对《红楼梦》两种译本中拟亲属称谓翻译的比较,可以得出结论:英汉拟亲属称谓反差强烈,折射出不同的民族文化。对中西拟亲属称谓异同的认识,可以减少语码转换中读者所产生的困惑和误解,有利于跨文化交际的顺利进行。