Effects of Training in the Use of Social and Cognitive Strategies: An Intervention Study in Secondary Mathematics in Co‐Operative Groups

ABSTRACT

This article reports on an intervention study into the effects of a training in the use of social and cognitive strategies on the learning outcomes of students in secondary mathematics education. Special attention is given to differential effects for high‐ and low‐achieving students. The focus on differential effects is derived from studies into learning in small co‐operative groups, and from the results of meta‐analyses into the effects of training in learning strategies. From these studies it can be concluded that in general such programs contribute to learning. However, it seems that low‐achieving students are unable to benefit from interventions of the kind investigated (i.e., co‐operative learning and training in learning strategies). The main question is whether it is possible to design an instructional program from which all students benefit, and from which the low‐achieving students profit more than their counterparts in the control‐program. In the present study three instructional programs for co‐operative learning were compared: (i) an experimental program with special instruction in the use of social strategies; (ii) an experimental program with special instruction in the use of cognitive strategies; and (iii) a control program without training in either cognitive or social strategies. The programs were identical with respect to mathematical content and general instructional settings (a combination of whole‐class instruction, working in co‐operative groups and individual work). The experiment addressed the following research question: what are the general and differential effects of a training in the use of social and cognitive strategies on the results of learning in secondary mathematics? The research was conducted in two schools for secondary education in a total of 21 classes, involving a total of 511 students. The design was a pretest‐posttest control group design, using two experimental groups and one control group. The data were analysed from a multi‐level perspective. The outcomes of the investigation clearly show the effects of the intervention. Teaching cognitive and social strategies has the expected, positive effects. In addition to this main effect, a compensatory effect for the low‐achieving students was found. The low‐achieving students in the experimental conditions outperformed their counterparts in the control group.

     

Main idea comprehension: training teachers and effects on students

This paper describes a study with two objectives. First, to test the effectiveness of a programme – carried out by teachers in natural contexts – for teaching the process of main idea identification. Second, to test whether the relationship between process and product variables are those expected according to the Van Dijk and Kintsch model (1983). In the first part of the study (Alonso-Tapia and Carriedo, in press) teachers had been trained in what to teach about main idea comprehension and how to teach it according to a model of teachers’ training. After receiving training, the experimental group of teachers (n = 11), who had improved more than the control group (n= 15) in knowledge of main ideas and of comprehension training strategies, had to apply the strategies and the instruction method learned, whilst teaching their students (6th, 7th and 8th grades). Pupils of experimental and of control teachers (n= 303 and 287 respectively) were assessed in order to test whether, after training, the former overtook the latter in main idea identification and in knowledge of the strategies related to this process. Results show that the experimental group of students performed better than the control group in the variables trained. Theoretical implications about the variables mediating the process of main idea identification are also discussed.     

Training in Decision-making Strategies: An approach to enhance students’ competence to deal with socio-scientific issues

Dealing with socio-scientific issues in science classes enables students to participate productively in controversial discussions concerning ethical topics, such as sustainable development. In this respect, well-structured decision-making processes are essential for elaborate reasoning. To foster decision-making competence, a computer-based programme was developed that trains secondary school students (grades 11–13) in decision-making strategies. The main research question is: does training students to use these strategies foster decision-making competence? In addition, the influence of meta-decision aids was examined. Students conducted a task analysis to select an appropriate strategy prior to the decision-making process. Hence, the second research question is: does combining decision-making training with a task analysis enhance decision-making competence at a higher rate? To answer these questions, 386 students were tested in a pre-post-follow-up control-group design that included two training groups (decision-making strategies/decision-making strategies combined with a task analysis) and a control group (decision-making with additional ecological information instead of strategic training). An open-ended questionnaire was used to assess decision-making competence in situations related to sustainable development. The decision-making training led to a significant improvement in the post-test and the follow-up, which was administered three months after the training. Long-term effects on the quality of the students' decisions were evident for both training groups. Gains in competence when reflecting upon the decision-making processes of others were found, to a lesser extent, in the training group that received the additional meta-decision training. In conclusion, training in decision-making strategies is a promising approach to deal with socio-scientific issues related to sustainable development.     

Can the flipped classroom model improve students’ academic performance and training satisfaction in Higher Education instructional media design courses?

While “flipping” a classroom has gained attention in K-12 and Secondary school programs, there has been relatively no explicit focus on its effectiveness as a teaching method for instructional media design courses in Higher Education. The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to determine the effectiveness of the flipped classroom approach to teaching instructional media design subjects by comparing students’ academic performance and training satisfaction in traditional lecture-based instruction with those in a flipped classroom. A total of 128 undergraduate students participated voluntarily and were divided into a control (n = 62) and an experimental (n = 66) group, respectively. The study findings indicated substantial differences in both academic performance and training satisfaction between the two groups, with the students in the experimental group performing significantly better. Specifically, the results showed some determining factors associated with training satisfaction that explain why students in flipped classes achieved notably higher mastery in the learning objectives than their control group peers. This study adds to the literature by providing evidence on how a flipped classroom can potentially benefit students’ academic performance, leading to higher training satisfaction and deeper disciplinary understanding in instructional media design courses.     

A Phonetic Study of Young Children’s Speech

Abstract. The author examined the effectiveness of training in symbolic logic for improving students' deductive reasoning. A total of 116 undergraduate students (approximately equal numbers of men and women) enrolled in 1st-year university philosophy courses in symbolic logic participated in 2 studies. In both studies, students completed booklets of categorical and conditional syllogisms at the beginning of the course and again at the end of the course. In Study 2, students also specified their reasoning strategies. Results indicated that students' strategies changed with training (students increased their use of mental models and mental rules with categorical and conditional syllogisms, respectively), but their reasoning performance improved only moderately. The educational implications of these results are explored.     

Strategic Keyboard Training and Spelling Improvement among Children with Learning Disabilities and Mental Retardation

The aim of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of a strategic keyboard training program for improving the spelling performance of children with mild disabilities. The sample consisted of 36 mildly disabled students divided into two groups: 18 learning disabled students, and 18 educable mentally retarded students. The teachers used strategic procedures emphasising awareness of word structure and spelling strategies, combined with keyboard training, for a duration of three months (45‐minute sessions, twice weekly). The results demonstrated a significant decrease in spelling errors, as assessed through computer typing and handwriting. However, the comparisons between the group achievements of the learning disabled and mentally retarded children did not reveal significant differences in the development of the spelling performance. Analysis of the results, and of the four case‐studies, pin‐pointed attention onto the initial individual differences in the spelling performance, and onto the students’ individual learning style during training, emphasising the need for an individualised approach in remedial computerised spelling procedures.     

大学英语口语交际策略教学研究

在回顾交际和交际策略相关理论的基础上,对口语课上三种主要交际策略（迂回表达策略、澄清策略、确认检查策略）教学的效果进行实证分析。在其他教学因素基本相同的情况下,对控制班和实验班分别进行普通口语教学和导入策略口语教学。研究发现在口语教学中引入交际策略,能加强学生对交际策略的理解,增加学生使用交际策略的频率,并在一定程度上增强口语交际能力。     

高职生英语学习策略训练的实证研究

本文以73名04级高职院校的学生为对象,就英语学习策略训练对其进行了长达一年的研究。结果发现:高职生普遍缺乏学习动机、自卑心理强、策略意识差;通过长期的策略训练,充分发挥高职生非智力因素的作用,增强了自信心、培养了成功感,有效改善了高职生的学习现状,大大提高了英语总体水平。本研究成果对高职英语教学有较大的现实指导意义。     

The Effect of Conflict Resolution Training on Turkish Elementary School Students: A Quasi-Experimental Investigation

This study investigated the effect of conflict resolution training on Turkish elementary school students' conflict resolution strategies. The participants were 54 fourth grade students. A pre-test, post-test, follow-up control group quasi-experimental design was used. Two 4th grade classes were selected out of three eligible 4th grade classes on the basis of Conflict Scenario Written Measure (Johnson, Johnson, & Dudley, 1992) and randomly assigned as control and experimental group. The experimental group consisted of 28 students (17 boys, 11 girls) and the control group consisted of 26 students (15 boys, 11 girls). Those in experimental group received 45 minutes of conflict resolution training twice a week, for four weeks. The results indicated that treatment was effective in changing the conflict resolution strategies used by the experimental group subjects in three different hypothetical situations and this effect was maintained six months after the treatment.     

The effects of headlines and summaries on news comprehension and recall

In two experiments, we attempted to analyze the effects of newspaper article headlines and summaries on final comprehension and recall. During the first experiment, the participants consisted of 117 high school students from the 9th grade, 68 from the 11th grade, 79 first year Psychology students from the Autonoma University of Madrid and 66 fifth year Journalism students from the Complutense University of Madrid. The subjects were randomly required to read a news report in one of the following experimental conditions: (1) the whole news article (headline, summary and text), (2) the headline and text, (3) the summary and text, and (4), the text only. The data from immediate and delayed free recall tasks were recorded. The results showed that the structure of the news article did not influence the recall and that there were differences among groups in the amount and quality of recall. The headline and the summary modified by the use of macrostructural criteria constituted additional elements introduced into the second experiment to provide a contrast with the original headline and summary. The results showed that an improvement in article recall did occur with the modified version in comparison with the original version. These two experiments have confirmed that the aims and criteria of journalists differ from those held by the authors of scientific texts and question whether the reading strategies applied are the same in both cases.     

大学英语不善学者词汇记忆策略培训的实验研究

研究采用专题讲座与课堂渗透相结合、显性培训与隐性培养相结合、课内培训与课外实践相结合的方式,以化整为零法、谐音记忆法、词根记忆法、字母调整法、情境记忆法等五种词汇记忆方法为主要培训内容,对89名大学英语不善学者实施了为期16周的词汇记忆策略培训的实验研究。结果表明：1.策略培训有效地提高了实验班学生词汇记忆策略的使用水平;2.策略培训使实验班学生的词汇记忆策略使用水平及词汇记忆能力都远高于对照班学生。     

影子跟读训练对英语专业学习者听写策略影响的实证研究

以两个平行班为被试,两个班接受相同的教学内容,但实验组增加了为期三个月的影子跟读训练,以探讨影子跟读训练是否能提高听写技能,以及对听写策略是否有促进作用。实验发现,影子跟读训练有助于提高学生的听写技能,且接受了影子跟读训练的学生能够更多地运用元认知策略与认知策略。     

Review of comparative studies in the instruction of students with moderate and severe handicaps

Systematic instructional strategies that investigators have used with students who display moderate to severe handicaps were identified and defined. The investigations which directly compared two or more strategies were analyzed, and summary statements/recommendations about the relative effectiveness and efficiency of the strategies were made. Analyzing the effectiveness of the procedures involved determining which strategies successfully taught skills to subjects. The efficiency of the strategies was analyzed on measures which indicated the skills were taught in a productive and timely manner (i.e., trials to criterion, sessions to criterion, errors to criterion, direct instruction time). Recommendations for future research and practice include (a) conduct more studies comparing the effectiveness and efficiency of instructional strategies, (b) conduct investigations of the specific variables of single strategies to identify the most efficient use of each procedure, (c) expand the efficiency measures to assess whether students learn information not directly targeted for instruction, and (d) conduct research to determine which strategy is best to use with given types of students and skills.     

Is it possible to improve mathematical achievement by means of self-regulation strategies? Evaluation of an intervention in regular math classes

After the effectiveness of self-regulation training outside school was demonstrated, a self-regulation intervention was developed to foster the learning achievement in regular math classes. Based on the theoretical framework of self-regulated learning, self-regulation training was integrated into a math class unit. The evaluation of the intervention concerning 53 sixth-grade students took place in a pretest/posttest-control-group design. One teacher taught one class (control group) merely mathematical topics and another class (experimental group) in the same subject combined with self-regulative strategies. The results revealed that it is possible to support self-regulation competencies and mathematical achievement by self-regulation interventin within regular mathematics lessons of 6th-grade students.     

Training Students to Use Maps to Increase Text Recall

In this study, high school students were trained to use adjunct maps strategically while studying a History text. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a control or map training group which read a lengthy passage which was accompanied by three maps. The control group was instructed to study the materials and write an essay about them. The map training group was instructed to study the materials and to place important event information from the text on their maps; they also discussed how their maps could be used to help them remember the text. One week later multiple choice, probed recall, free recall, and map recall tests were administered. Three weeks after training both groups read a transfer text and were instructed to use the attached map to help them remember the information. Free recalls were gathered after a short delay. Results showed that map training subjects obtained higher scores on all of the training text recall measures and on the main idea level transfer text measures. High ability map training subjects also recalled more details. Maps used in the transfer task showed trained subjects using the strategies they had been taught.     

Enhancing Decision-Making in STSE Education by Inducing Reflection and Self-Regulated Learning

Thoughtful decision-making to resolve socioscientific issues is central to science, technology, society, and environment (STSE) education. One approach for attaining this goal involves fostering students’ decision-making processes. Thus, the present study explores whether the application of decision-making strategies, combined with reflections on the decision-making processes of others, enhances decision-making competence. In addition, this study examines whether this process is supported by elements of self-regulated learning, i.e., self-reflection regarding one’s own performance and the setting of goals for subsequent tasks. A computer-based training program which involves the resolution of socioscientific issues related to sustainable development was developed in two versions: with and without elements of self-regulated learning. Its effects on decision-making competence were analyzed using a pre test-post test follow-up control-group design (N?=?242 high school students). Decision-making competence was assessed using an open-ended questionnaire that focused on three facets: consideration of advantages and disadvantages, metadecision aspects, and reflection on the decision-making processes of others. The findings suggest that students in both training groups incorporated aspects of metadecision into their statements more often than students in the control group. Furthermore, both training groups were more successful in reflecting on the decision-making processes of others. The students who received additional training in self-regulated learning showed greater benefits in terms of metadecision aspects and reflection, and these effects remained significant two months later. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the application of decision-making strategies, combined with reflections on the decision-making process and elements of self-regulated learning, is a fruitful approach in STSE education.     

Cognitive Prerequisites for Generative Learning: Why Some Learning Strategies Are More Effective Than Others

This study examined age-related differences in the effectiveness of two generative learning strategies (GLSs). Twenty-five children aged 9–11 and 25 university students aged 17–29 performed a facts learning task in which they had to generate either a prediction or an example before seeing the correct result. We found a significant Age × Learning Strategy interaction, with children remembering more facts after generating predictions rather than examples, whereas both strategies were similarly effective in adults. Pupillary data indicated that predictions stimulated surprise, whereas the effectiveness of example-based learning correlated with children’s analogical reasoning abilities. These findings suggest that there are different cognitive prerequisites for different GLSs, which results in varying degrees of strategy effectiveness by age.     

Student Goal Orientation and Interest: Effects on Students' Use of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies

This study examined how goal orientation and interest together affected students' use of learning strategies. Ninety-three Grade 11 students participated in this study. This study was a 2 × 2 between-groups factorial using a post-test-only control group design. There were two independent variables, Goal orientation and Interest. There were three dependent variables: Total Main Ideas, Use of Other Cognitive Strategies, and Metacognition. There were significant main effects for Interest and Goal Orientation on the main-idea selection measure: high-interest students selected more main ideas than low-interest students, and rewarded students outperformed learning goal-oriented students. There was a main effect for Interest on Metacognition: high-interest students reported using more metacognitive strategies than low-interest students. Interpretation of these results is discussed from a theoretical perspective and practical applications are offered as well.     

Learning Visualization Strategies: A qualitative investigation

The following study investigates the range of strategies individuals develop to infer and interpret cross-sections of three-dimensional objects. We focus on the identification of mental representations and problem-solving processes made by 11 individuals with the goal of building training applications that integrate the strategies developed by the participants in our study. Our results suggest that although spatial transformation and perspective-taking techniques are useful for visualizing cross-section problems, these visual processes are augmented by analytical thinking. Further, our study shows that participants employ general analytic strategies for extended periods which evolve through practice into a set of progressively more expert strategies. Theoretical implications are discussed and five main findings are recommended for integration into the design of education software that facilitates visual learning and comprehension.     

中外合作项目学生词汇策略训练研究

为探索策略训练对中外合作办学学生词汇学习的效果,以100名合作办学项目一年级学生为研究对象,进行了为期一学年的词汇策略培训。结果表明：策略培训有助于改善学生学习观念。经培训,学生词汇策略使用意识增强,使用的类别有所增加,使用频率有所提高。策略培训有助于提高学生词汇水平,训练对低分组学生帮助更明显。培训前后,男生较女生在词汇量和词汇策略使用方面的变化更显著。