工作时间与工作家庭冲突:基于性别差异的研究

工作家庭冲突已受国内实践界和学术界的广泛重视,但国内关于性别、工作时间等基本因素与工作家庭冲突之间关系的实证研究仍然欠缺。本研究通过在中国五个区域调查的2030份样本,探索了中国情境下性别、工作时间与工作家庭冲突之间的基本关系,并在此基础上进一步剖析了性别角色态度对这一基本关系的影响。大样本实证研究发现,工作时间、性别和性别角色态度对工作家庭冲突存在三向交互影响,该结论为揭示目前关于性别、工作时间与工作家庭冲突之间关系的相悖结论提供了一种解释。     

“A tie is a tie? Gender and network positioning in life science inventor collaboration”

Collaborative relationships are an important anchor of innovative activity, and rates of collaboration in science are on the rise. This research addresses differences in men’s and women’s collaborative positioning and collaborator characteristics in science, and whether network influences on scientists’ future productivity may be contingent on gender. Utilizing co-inventor network relations that span thirty years of global life science patenting across sectors, geographic locations, and technological background, I present trends of men’s and women’s involvement in patenting and their collaborative characteristics across time. Amidst some network similarities, women are less likely to connect otherwise unconnected inventors (brokerage) and have greater status-asymmetries between themselves and their co-inventors. In multivariate models that include past and future activity, I find that some network benefits are contingent on gender. Men receive greater returns from network positioning for brokerage ties, and when collaborating with men. Women benefit from collaborating with women, and are more likely to collaborate with women, but both men and women collaborate with mostly men. I discuss the implications of these results for innovative growth, as well as for policies that support men’s and women’s career development.     

Relational mechanisms governing multifaceted collaborative behavior of academic scientists in six fields of science and engineering

Norms of academic science and engineering are moving in the direction of broader applicability and transferability of knowledge beyond the borders of the university. In response, scientists are expected to engage in collaboration that includes both basic and applied collaborative activities. More specifically, the norms of science are beginning to change to allow for novel forms of collaboration that involve sharing of research ideas on multiple facets of collaborative work. This paper examines the extent to which multifaceted collaboration is attributable to relational aspects of individuals’ networks. Specifically, we ask the question: what relational aspects of social capital determine multifaceted collaboration among scientists in six fields of science and engineering? Borrowing literature from social capital and science and technology (S&T) human capital, this paper develops a multi-level model of multifaceted collaboration and presents a set of testable hypotheses. Then using data from a national survey of men and women faculty in six fields, we analyze the multi-level data: relationship or dyad level (level 1) and ego level (level 2) with hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to predict multifaceted collaboration of academic scientists. Findings show that some relational characteristics explain multifaceted collaborative behavior as predicted, while others behave in unexpected ways. Conclusions place the findings in context for theory and policy.     

中国电子显微学领域分层结构的社会性别研究

科学领域中"女性相对缺席"已成为一种普遍现象,但是各学科之间又存在"缺席程度"的差异。为了丰富对科学女性研究的多样性,本文选择中国电子显微学中科学女性的发展状况进行研究。通过对该领域学会会员的构成、科学产出、基金资助几个方面进行性别分层的考察,并从社会性别视角进行了分析,提出实验室中性别文化的存在和科学活动中"理论研究"与"实验操作"的二分是造成女性在电子显微学中比例较高,而在分层结构中位置较低的主要原因。     

The matilda effect in science: awards and prizes in the US, 1990s and 2000s

Science is stratified, with an unequal distribution of research facilities and rewards among scientists. Awards and prizes, which are critical for shaping scientific career trajectories, play a role in this stratification when they differentially enhance the status of scientists who already have large reputations: the 'Matthew Effect'. Contrary to the Mertonian norm of universalism--the expectation that the personal attributes of scientists do not affect evaluations of their scientific claims and contributions--in practice, a great deal of evidence suggests that the scientific efforts and achievements of women do not receive the same recognition as do those of men: the 'Matilda Effect'. Awards in science, technology, engineering and medical (STEM) fields are not immune to these biases. We outline the research on gender bias in evaluations of research and analyze data from 13 STEM disciplinary societies. While women's receipt of professional awards and prizes has increased in the past two decades, men continue to win a higher proportion of awards for scholarly research than expected based on their representation in the nomination pool. The results support the powerful twin influences of implicit bias and committee chairs as contributing factors. The analysis sheds light on the relationship of external social factors to women's science careers and helps to explain why women are severely underrepresented as winners of science awards. The ghettoization of women's accomplishments into a category of 'women-only' awards also is discussed.     

The costs and benefits of 'red tape': anti-bureaucratic structure and gender inequity in a science research organization

This paper explicates a central conflict that can affect science research organizations, the conflict between the anti-bureaucratic stance believed to advance science and concerns for gender equity rooted in the universalist ethos of science. We present a case study of a science research organization, using employment and publication records, a survey of 308 employees, and qualitative interviews with 60 employees. We show how anti-bureaucratic organizational structures perpetuate gender inequities for both female scientists and non-scientists.     

The gender gap in early career transitions in the life sciences

We examined the extent to which and why early career transitions have led to women being underrepresented among faculty in the life sciences. We followed the careers of 6,336 scientists from the post-doctoral fellowship stage to becoming a principal investigator (PI) – a critical transition in the academic life sciences. Using a unique dataset that connects individuals’ National Institutes of Health funding histories to their publication records, we found that a large portion of the overall gender gap in the life sciences emerges at this transition. Women become PIs at a 20% lower rate than men. Differences in “productivity” (publication records) can explain about 60% of this differential. The remaining portion appears to stem from gender differences in the returns to similar publication records, with women receiving less credit for their citations.     

Academic scientists’ affiliation with university research centers: Selection dynamics

University research centers have been institutionalized as a part of the science policy repertoire committed to strategic use of science and technology. Based on a representative sample of academic scientists and engineers in American research universities, this study investigates the selection dynamics, attempting to unfold the determinants of department-affiliated faculty members to be center affiliates. The findings suggest that university research centers select their affiliates on the basis of individual scientific and technical human capital. Scientists from prestigious departments are more likely to be center affiliates, so are prolific scientists, former postdoctoral scholars and the elder cohorts. In the meantime, university research centers are able to overcome the incentive incongruity with academic departments, as is evidenced by a higher likelihood among junior scientists to secure center connections. Dedicated to diversity and equity, university research centers provide a level playing field for women, minority and foreign-born scientists. The study concludes with a discussion of the scientific and technical human capital theory and policy implications in the science enterprise.     

Gendered knowledge in fields and academic careers

Women and men often contribute differently to research knowledge. Do differences in these contributions partially explain disparities in academic career outcomes? We explore this by looking at how gender is embodied in research language, and then ascertain whether the adoption of more gendered research language affects career outcomes beyond the researcher's attributes. We identify different forms of gendered knowledge—gender referents (explicit references to sex and gender) and gender-associated terms (words that are implicitly associated with women or men researchers)—by applying natural language processing techniques to nearly one million doctoral dissertations published in the United States between 1980 and 2010. We then determine whether employing gender referents and gender-associated terms affects the course of PhDs’ ensuing careers. We find women researchers have lower chances of securing academic positions than men in every field; explicit references to women as research subjects are modestly rewarded in comparison to references to men; and more career opportunities are afforded to research knowledge associated with men. These results suggest that academia is slowly correcting the traditional and explicit bias of studying men at the exclusion of women. Still, there remains a stronger implicit bias against knowledge associated with women scholars. We discuss relative differences between humanities and social sciences versus natural sciences, technology, engineering, and math, as well as potential treatments for offsetting bias in those fields.     

Situating gender: Marie E. Zakrzewska and the place of science in women's medical education

Marie E. Zakrzewska (1829-1902) is known among historians of women and medicine for her advocacy of the natural sciences at a time when most women physicians preferred to emphasize their nurturing qualities. This article suggests that Zakrzewska's views have been poorly understood because scholars have tried to position them along a fault line that divides femininity and sympathy from masculinity and science. It suggests instead that feminist scholarship on the "situatedness of gender" offers a more promising conceptual framework for understanding the diverse strategies women (and men) have utilized in trying to achieve their goals. Zakrzewska, unlike many of her colleagues, did not seek to empower feminine virtues as a way of justifying women's entry into the medical profession. Instead, she tried to reappropriate science for women and to use it as a weapon against the barriers designed to keep women out of the public sphere. She was fighting her own battle against the gendering of science.     

Disseminating scientific research: a double-edged sword?

This study addresses the problem of knowledge dissemination in science–society relation, its connection with the specialization of scientific research fields and the proliferation of academic and practitioner-oriented journals. Specifically, we elaborate on the scientists’ failure to communicate successfully with practitioners and the need for establishing alternative mechanisms that help boost the flow of knowledge between academics and industry. To do so, a thorough literature review is conducted and the author guidelines of the most prominent journals that appeal to both academics and practitioners are reviewed. Based on the analysis, the article offers suggestions on how to narrow the science–industry knowledge gap and how to find a way of not only delivering science to practitioners, but also making science benefit society. Progress is necessary to move towards a better academic–practitioner dialogue and thereby advance both science and practice.     

Sustainable development of science and scientists: Academic training in life science labs

Academic training, where senior scientists transfer their knowledge and skills to junior scientists through apprenticeship, plays a crucial role in the development of scientists. This study focuses on two aspects of academic training, autonomy and exploration, to investigate how different modes of training are incentivized and how they affect junior scientists’ performance and career prospects. Drawing on a sample of 162 supervising professors and their 791 PhD students in life science labs in Japanese universities, this study suggests two fundamental conflicts in academic training. First, autonomy granted to PhD students under apprenticeship improves their long-term performance but decreases short-term performance. Because the latter effect costs supervisors, while the former does not benefit them in general, this inter-temporal tradeoff creates an incentive conflict between supervisors and students, inducing non-autonomous training. The short-term cost for supervisors can be compensated in the form of labor input or reputation gain from previous students in the long term, but this typically happens when students are trained with limited scope of exploration, which hinders the originality of students’ knowledge production. This reduces the diversity of knowledge production, presenting another incentive conflict between individual scientists and the collective scientific community.     

论中国科学界的性别分化与性别隔离

科学技术作为一种专门职业正吸引着越来越多的知识女性的参与。但科研职业生涯方面的性别差异仍然存在 ,这与传统的劳动性别分工及性别隔离这些制度性结构障碍密切相关。本文将侧重于分析影响男女科学家职业生涯分化的结构性障碍 ,说明其生涯道路差异的表现和原因。     

Bimbo or boffin? Women in science: an analysis of media representations and how female scientists negotiate cultural contradictions

This paper examines the gendered representations of scientists in the UK media. Our analysis reveals the asymmetrical ways in which men and women working in science, engineering and technology are portrayed, in particular through the emphasis on women's appearance and a focus on their exceptional status. It also highlights the way female scientists may be used to "sex up" the discipline in the context of increasing concern about the (un)popularity of science. This media analysis is contextualized by drawing on data from 86 scientists examining how women themselves experience press and television coverage and address the cultural contradictions surrounding their role. The research highlights the challenges facing women working in these fields and the dilemmas for those seeking to develop a "human" face for science and promote a positive image for women.     

我国中学生的科学家形象认知状况初探

随着我国科学职业化进程的深入,科学家形象的公众认知也日益复杂,中学生对科学家形象的认知具有很好的代表性。因而,基于DAST量表和编码方法,对安徽、浙江两省3所中学的448名中学生就科学家形象进行绘画调查。结果显示,发达地区学生更易获得较高量表得分,对科学家职业认知更加积极,但批判反思不足,欠发达地区学生则对科学负面效应关注略多;科学家画像的性别分布情况则表明,女性参与科学仍遭受性别歧视。因此,科技政策制定、科学家形象传播策略变化或需有针对性地调整完善。     

Scientific and political orientation of American scientists

The paper presents some findings of a study which surveyed the political attitudes and involvement of American scientists.We found an unambiguous rank ordering based on political orientation among the various subgroups of scientists. The greater the scientists' identification with basic science and the university, the greater the liberalism. However, the claim that scientific elites are more liberal than the rank-and-file and that physicists are the most liberal among natural scientists was not substantiated.The fear that a scientific-technological elite might become a dominant political elite was not reflected in the thinking of a large majority of our 1205 respondents. A majority expressed reservations about the skill and knowledge of the citizenry to understand and resolve the increasingly complex problems of our society, recognize that a separation of science and politics is not attainable or even desireable, but remain somewhat uneasy with the new situation in which their work has become so enmeshed with policy concerns.The traditional norm system of science continues to receive substantial support and takes precedence over either the concern about the social consequences of certain types of “dangerous” knowledge, or the costs that heavy investments in basic science involve. We find that scientists are largely prepared to sacrifice the norm of communality at the altar of nationalism. The clash between an internal ideology of science that values disinterested search for knowledge and an external ideology of society which focuses on utility presents a continuing dilemma.     

Gender discrepancies in publication productivity of high-performing life science graduate students

Despite equal matriculation into life science graduate programs, the gender gap persists for later-stage professional outcomes. To understand this divergence, we examine graduate training and use the competitive NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program to identify high-quality life science students that are awardees and honorable mentions. We use a differencing research design to estimate the relative difference of the R&D award across gender on publication trajectory. The results of the triple difference estimation show a negative effect for women compared to men from the award. We investigate the driver of this effect by examining trends within gender and find a large, positive effect of the award for men but fail to find such evidence for female awardees. Our results indicate different signaling effects across gender even though the funding is meritocratic.     

Scientists’ collaboration strategies: implications for scientific and technical human capital

“Scientific and technical human capital” (S&T human capital) has been defined as the sum of researchers’ professional network ties and their technical skills and resources [Int. J. Technol. Manage. 22 (7-8) (2001) 636]. Our study focuses on one particular means by which scientists acquire and deploy S&T human capital, research collaboration. We examine data from 451 scientists and engineers at academic research centers in the United States. The chief focus is on scientists’ collaboration choices and strategies. Since we are particularly interested in S&T human capital, we pay special attention to strategies that involve mentoring graduate students and junior faculty and to collaborating with women. We also examine collaboration “cosmopolitanism,” the extent to which scientists collaborate with those around them (one’s research group, one’s university) as opposed to those more distant in geography or institutional setting (other universities, researchers in industry, researchers in other nations). Our findings indicate that those who pursue a “mentor” collaboration strategy are likely to be tenured; to collaborate with women; and to have a favorable view about industry and research on industrial applications. Regarding the number of reported collaborators, those who have larger grants have more collaborators. With respect to the percentage of female collaborators, we found, not surprisingly, that female scientists have a somewhat higher percentage (36%) of female collaborators, than males have (24%). There are great differences, however, according to rank, with non-tenure track females having 84% of their collaborations with females. Regarding collaboration cosmopolitanism, we find that most researchers are not particularly cosmopolitan in their selection of collaborators—they tend to work with the people in their own work group. More cosmopolitan collaborators tend have large grants. A major policy implication is that there is great variance in the extent to which collaborations seem to enhance or generate S&T human capital. Not all collaborations are equal with respect to their “public goods” implications.     

学术水平的不可验证性对科研奖励的影响研究

本文基于不可验证性视角对学术水平是否适合作为科研奖励的评奖标准进行了研究。本文提出了一个科学家获奖概率模型,该模型弥补了科研锦标赛框架中未考虑同行评议的缺陷,并使得科研奖励模型更加符合学术水平不可验证的经济学特征。本文运用上述模型实证分析了我国科研奖励中同行评议的有效性。本文的主要研究结论是:(1)学术水平难以直接作为遴选科研奖励获奖成果的标准;(2)科学家能否获奖取决于同行科学家的推定而与其科研成果的学术水平没有显著的直接关系;(3)目前我国省级以上科研奖励的同行评议难以有效分离学术水平不同的科研成果;(4)学术创新还难以成为我国省级以上科研奖励的主要激励目标。提高同行评议的有效性是本文研究结论最主要的政策含义。     

工作-家庭冲突的理论模型和研究发展

从具有代表性的工作—家庭冲突理论展开,如角色冲突、性别差异、工作和家庭之间双向冲突、跨文化环境中工作—家庭冲突等理论模型,围绕工作—家庭冲突的前因变量和结果变量的理论模型进行分析,并对未来的研究进行展望。