Enacting policy: the capacity of school leaders to support early career teachers through policy work

Early career teachers often feel overwhelmed by the complex, intense and unpredictable nature of their work. Recently, policy initiatives have been introduced to provide new teachers with extra release-time from face-to-face classroom teaching duties to assist them in their transition to the workforce. This paper reports on a critical policy study that investigated the enactment of this policy initiative. A data set was created from a larger qualitative study which investigated early career teacher resilience. Drawing on a policy enactment theoretical ‘toolbox’, the findings indicate that school leaders can empower early career teachers to move beyond being ‘receivers’ of policy to assume a more active policy role. This paper argues that school leaders are very powerful in their capacity to enact policy to ensure strategic access to appropriate on-going learning opportunities to support early career teachers.     

Singapore’s educational policy through the prism of student voice: recasting students as co-agents of educational change and ‘disrupting’ the status quo?

This paper examines the implementation of Singapore’s landmark policy, ‘Thinking Schools, learning Nation’ (TSLN), in developing ‘thinking students’ through the prism of student voice. In the context of twenty-first century education and the growing importance of student voice in education, this paper argues that the time might be right to ‘disrupt’ Singapore’s education status quo and incorporate meaningful student voice in education policies. Instead of perceiving students as mere subjects of educational policy enactment, and seeing policy as something that is done to them, it should be reconceptualised as something which is done with them; importantly, students should be recast as key co-agents of educational change, consistent with TSLN’s reconceptualization of learners as ‘thinking students’. Basing its arguments on findings from a qualitative case study of students’ perceptions and schooling experiences of critical thinking in TSLN, this paper considers the case for the inclusion of significant student voice in Singapore’s educational policy reforms. It fills gaps in research on student voices in Singapore’s educational reforms and TSLN’s research from students’ perspective. The paper suggests that the inclusion of student voice in educational reform might be the next landmark step in ‘disrupting’ its educational landscape after the ‘big bang’ of TSLN.     

Educational reforms,cultural clashes and classroom practices

This article presents an ongoing study of educational policy enactment in Singapore lower primary English classrooms. It explores how teachers react to and interpret educational reforms in their classroom practices against a backdrop of traditional cultural values. Using a prescribed coding scheme, the article presents the instructional organisational patterns and participation structures of the lessons. Through a systematic analysis of the enacted curricula, the paper examines classroom practices as well as teaching and learning activities in Primary 1 (7–8 years) and Primary 2 (8–9 years) English lessons in Singapore. The results suggest that there are cultural clashes between major educational reforms which emphasise independent/critical thinking and ‘Asian values’ which promote respect for authority and conformity.     

Teaching critical thinking: Cultural challenges and strategies in Singapore

Among the challenges faced by educators in promoting critical thinking is that of cultural compatibility. Using Singapore as an illustrative case study, this paper explores the cultural challenges and recommended strategies for the teaching of critical thinking in schools. The research for this study is based on a theoretical framework that focuses on two dominant practices of critical thinking: confrontational and individualistic on the one hand, and collegial and communal on the other. Research data shows that the main cultural challenges are the social expectations of teachers as knowledge transmitters and a perception that critical thinking is essentially adversarial. The recommended strategies are the utilisation of cooperative learning strategies and the provision of a safe learning environment. There are two major implications arising from this research study. The first is a need for policymakers and educators to be cognisant of cultural constraints in the teaching of critical thinking. The second is the significance of teacher efficacy to engender student engagement and successful learning within socio‐cultural constraints. The Singapore experience adds to the existing literature by highlighting the existence and significance of communitarian practices of critical thinking in an Asian context.     

Engendering a culture of thinking in a culture of performativity: the challenge of mediating tensions in the Singaporean educational system

Among the major policies that have been implemented to ensure its continued success, Thinking Schools, Learning Nation (TSLN) has been described as the ‘big bang of educational reforms’ in Singapore. However, while the policy aims to develop critical thinkers in school leavers, the corporatisation of education in the shape of structures such as the school excellence model seems to be at odds with TSLN. This paper argues that these structures unwittingly engender a culture of performativity among schools, marginalising the central outcome of its initiative that entails developing a culture of thinking and thinkers. The tension is further exacerbated by the larger rationalities that have shaped Singapore and the pragmatic and instrumental philosophy which underpins its educational system. The tensions generated by the clash between intended (culture of thinking) and engendered culture (culture of performativity) present the challenge of mediation for the system on its path to realising TSLN.     

“牛角尖”走出来突破思维定势

心理学家卢钦斯的研究结果显示，各个年龄阶段、各种教育水平的人都受到思维定势的影响，从这点我们就可断定中小学生在学习过程中也必然受其影响。所以我们将在文中分析在学生的学习过程中思维定势对学生造成什么样的影响及其产生的原因。同时，提出几点可供教师借鉴的教学策略，以培养学生主动思考问题的能力，使他们能随情境的变换而主动调整知识的获得方式和解决问题的策略，从而走出“牛角尖”。     

Thinking about “design thinking”: a study of teacher experiences

Schools are continuously looking for new ways of enhancing student learning to equip students with skills that would enable them to cope with twenty-first century demands. One promising approach focuses on design thinking. This study examines teacher's perceptions, experiences and challenges faced in adopting design thinking. There is a lack of empirical research on the adoption and implementation of the design thinking process in educational context from the teachers’ point of view. This paper fills this gap and also provides insight on a recent initiative adopted in Singapore schools. Qualitative case study research was carried out in a school using teacher narratives. Data includes in-depth face-to-face interviews and participant observation. The findings show that teachers perceive that design thinking holds the potential for enhancing skills such as creativity, problem solving, communication and team work as well as empower students to develop empathy for others within and beyond the community. The research also highlighted several challenges such as inadequate resources, time constraints, fear of poor grades and the difficulty of shifting to a new way of teaching and learning that differs vastly from the traditional approach. The findings reveal that a piecemeal approach towards curriculum redesign for adopting design thinking may not provide the desired outcomes.     

关于批判性思维教育和高等教育改革关系的思考

批判性思维教育和高等教育改革二者互促共进.一方面,批判性思维是全球化、多元化、信息化时代背景下高等教育改革的重要目标,也是高校课程改革的必然要求,对大学生的主动、全面、继续发展和有效学习都具有重要意义,有利于防止高校课程改革仅停留在表面活跃的浅层次上.另一方面,高等教育改革推动批判性思维的课程化为批判性思维教育积累丰富...     

Science Teachers’ Professional Development and Changes in Science Practical Assessment Practices: What are the Issues?

This paper considers the circumstances under which science teachers can respond positively and productively to educational policy reforms in the area of science practical assessment. To understand what might be involved in linking science teachers’ assessment capacities and their professional development, we present illustrative data from recent research studies conducted in Singapore and Hong Kong showing contrasting approaches taken in the implementation of reforms in science practical assessment. In Singapore, teachers worked together to select, discuss, clarify and refine their practices as they made decisions about what to teach and assess. In Hong Kong, teachers took a critical stance towards the new policy and learnt from their own experiences in order to build their confidence. With the same policy initiative, one group of teachers focused more on the technicalities of complying with requirements imposed on them while in the other group had their professional consciousness of what they thought was best for their students provoked so that their practices would be transformed. In an attempt to draw lessons for other contexts in supporting the implementation of assessment policy reforms through professional development work, we identify and discuss a range of factors in science teachers’ professional development that arise once in situ professional development work has started. Overall, our intent in this article is to recast assessment reform as a driver or pivot in teachers’ professional development and learning. To do this it is necessary, we argue, to afford teachers’ experiences and the processes involved in learning from them greater emphasis in order to ensure the continuance of innovation in the assessment of laboratory-based work.     

高级英语研究性教学与学生思辨能力的培养

目前的高级英语教学只注重语言知识的讲解,忽视对课文的分析和鉴赏,不利于培养学生的恩辨能力和人文素养。研究性教学在高级英语课堂的采用改变了传统的教师讲、学生听的被动学习方式,它提倡教师指导,学生主体参与的教学方式,即学生在老师的引导下,通过完成小型研究项目来发展逻辑思维、综合分析、判断推理等重要思辨能力。     

Policy enactments in the UK secondary school: examining policy,practice and school positioning

This paper presents a first attempt in an ongoing research study of the policy environments in four UK secondary schools to examine policy enactment, where ‘enactment’ refers to an understanding that policies are interpreted and ‘translated’ by diverse policy actors in the school environment, rather than simply implemented. The paper is divided into two parts. The first part presents an audit of the policies encountered in four case study schools in the south‐east of England. The second part looks at one current English government policy, namely personal learning and thinking skills, and how this is taken up in two of the case study schools. In this way, the paper not just explores why a policy is adopted but also illustrates the capacity for school‐based policy elaboration, where schools produce their own ‘take’ on policy, drawing on aspects of their culture or ethos, as well as on the situated necessities.     

The Change in Mathematics Teachers' Perceptions of Critical Thinking after 15 Years of Educational Reform in Jordan

ABSTRACT. This study investigates how mathematics secondary schools' teachers in \hbox{Jordan} perceive critical thinking and compares teachers' perceptions before and after educational reform. Data were collected from 12 schools twice: in 1988 and in 2004 by interviewing 47 Mathematics teachers. The interview included questions related to teachers' understanding of critical thinking, its role and importance in learning Mathematics, and instructional strategies that could help improve students' critical thinking skills. Results found no improvement in secondary Mathematics teachers' perceptions of critical thinking despite 15 years of educational reform. The majority of Mathematics teachers seemed not to have a clear and adequate understanding of critical thinking. Though most of the teachers claimed they have to teach critical thinking, more than half of them could not suggest any learning situation that could help in fostering critical thinking in Mathematics classes. Also most of the teachers claimed that critical thinking would help students in learning Mathematics; yet less than half were able to give a convincing justification for that. A small percentage of the secondary Mathematics teachers believed they can help all students to foster their critical thinking. It is thus recommended that the concept of critical thinking be transferred from the realm of rhetoric to the field of practice. The paper ends with some recommendations related to the Mathematics teachers training programs in view of the results of this study.     

论批判性思维在大学英语教学中的融入

自20世纪80年代以来,大学生批判性思维的培养在以美国为代表的西方国家就已经开始受到重视。在我国至今有关大学生批判性思维及其培养的研究还十分薄弱,导致我国大学生批判性思维能力的状况不十分乐观。在大学英语教学中融入批判性思维,教师首先要更新大学英语教学理念、改进教学风格,其次要革新、优化教学方法,充分利用现代教育技术。     

新课标下如何培养中学生的数学思维能力

新课标下,中学数学教学的过程应该是数学知识与思想方法的发现过程,在这个过程中教师必须让学生的主体思维得到充分的发挥,教师要想方设法把学生引到思维的"源泉"中去,并不断启发学生去积极思考,尽可能地激活学生的思维能力。具体路径为:引导学生把文字语言转化为数学语言,训练学生正确思维;先做后讲,培养学生的数学独立思维能力;多方发问,激发学生发散思维;巧妙转换,培养学生数学思维的缜密性。     

Innovation and Enterprise in Singapore Schools

Schools in Singapore are now tasked to develop the spirit of innovation and enterprise in their students. This is in line with the national vision of ‘Thinking Schools, Learning Nation’. This policy initiative, which began in 2004, is set to change the fundamental nature of education in Singapore. This article discusses the innovation and enterprise (I&E) initiative, its major implications for schools in Singapore and the areas still to be addressed in the implementation of the policy. In particular, the article discusses the issues of teachers and school leaders as role models of I&E, I&E as an organic part of school business, the influence of the wider societal culture and values system, and the measurement of success of I&E. The challenge for schools is to go beyond the form of the initiative to bring real substantial and sustainable change through this movement.     

School leaders’ and teachers’ work with national test results: Lost in translation?

Studies have shown that school leaders are important in work with large-scale policy reforms in schools. However, the issue of how school leaders and teachers discuss and enact policy is under-studied. This article explores the discursive processes in school leaders’ and teachers’ policy enactment as they construct responses to policy. The data consists of video recordings and observation of leadership meetings and teacher-team meetings. A critical discourse analytical approach combined with perspectives of policy enactment as a process of interpretation serve as analytical concepts. The findings indicate the school leaders act more as narrators and enthusiasts, while the deputy managers and teacher-team leaders are more messengers and enforcers. The teachers mostly keep the discursive role as critics and preventers of ‘overburdening.’ A main argument is that the policy expectation of using national test results as a tool to develop school quality and student learning seems to be lost in translation.     

Rethinking critical patriotism: a case of constructive patriotism in Social Studies teachers in Singapore

Critical patriotism is an ideal in many liberal Western nations. Few studies, however, explore how teachers understand and teach critical patriotism and the possible tensions arising from its adoption, especially in non-Western contexts. This qualitative case study explores the understandings and practices of two Social Studies teachers from an elite girls’ school in Singapore to understand how they negotiate the tensions that arise when critical thinking and patriotism meet. The findings show that the teachers perceive little contradiction between patriotism and critical thinking and, hence, generally taught in line with democratic citizenship education. They encouraged students to discuss controversial policies, brought in diverse perspectives and challenged the status quo. However, sensitive to the socio-political context in Singapore, they sought consensus instead of contestation, gradual change instead of radical change, in contrast to the spirit of critical patriotism. These findings suggest that in Singapore, where communitarian values are promoted, critical patriotism was expressed differently. Constructive patriotism may be a better term to describe the type of patriotism observed in the teachers.     

Teacher beliefs in ‘testing’ times: a lesson from Singapore

International benchmarking and national testing of students at all levels of schooling have provoked teachers to critically reflect on their place in this endeavour. Many of the curriculum and pedagogical approaches associated with this type of assessment and accountability conflict with long-held beliefs about the role of teachers and the work of schooling. Singapore is recognised for significant achievement in the international schooling arena and also has a long history of national testing. This study draws specifically on positioning theory to investigate teacher beliefs and positioning in these times. A large qualitative research project located in Singapore sought the ways experienced teachers positioned themselves and their work as they negotiated multiple and sometimes conflicting discourses of teaching. A rigorous process was used to elicit teacher beliefs and resultant teacher positions.     

Signature Pedagogies for Educators Using Films: An Example From Singapore

This article discusses the application of Shulman's “signature pedagogies” through the utilization of films for preservice teachers and school leaders in Singapore. Using the films Dead Poets Society and Ahead of the Class, this article explains how these films facilitated the participants' engagement with the surface, deep, and implicit structures of education. In the process, they applied critical thinking by arriving at criteria-based and context-appropriate judgments reflectively. The research findings reveal two broad themes. First, the educators were cognizant of the key issues, opportunities, constraints, and obstacles in teaching and school leadership. Second, they appreciated the importance of adopting situated teaching and leadership approaches to cater to the needs of various educational stakeholders. This study highlights critical thinking as a sociocultural practice where the educators (re)interpreted the films through their cultural lenses and drew on local resources and logics to deal with the challenges in teaching and the school contexts.     

试析发散思维是创新思维的核心

创新思维是创新力的核心 ,而发散思维是创新思维的核心。因为发散思维最集中地体现了创新思维的本质和特征 ,它内在地包含了逆向思维、横向思维、求异思维等其它思维方式 ,同时它也是想象、联想、灵感等思维的前提和基础。教学中培养学生的发散思维能力 ,要注重发散思维提问 ,提倡一题多解 ,鼓励质疑问难 ,引发形象思维及指导灵感捕捉。