Selectivity in Diagrams: reading beyond the lines

Diagrams are commonly used with beginning students of technical domains to introduce these learners to key aspects of the subject matter. Instructional benefit is intended to result from a diagram's simplification of the content into a highly selective form of graphic presentation. However, this selectivity may not benefit those lacking the domain‐specific knowledge necessary to construct from the diagram an appropriate mental representation of the depicted situation. A weather map diagram extension task compared the mental representation of subjects with high levels of knowledge in the domain of meteorology (meteorologists) with that of low knowledge subjects (non‐meteorologists). The meteorologists’ domain‐specific elaboration of the given markings suggested a mental representation that was not limited by the diagram's selectivity, but rather incorporated the broader meteorological situation implied by the diagram. In contrast, the non‐meteorologists’ domain‐general approach indicated a meteorologically impoverished mental representation that was largely driven by the given diagram's visuo‐spatial characteristics.     

Diagram prediction and higher order structures in mental representation

Predictions of the patterns likely to appear on a weather map diagram one day later than those shown on a given map were drawn by meteorologists and non-meteorologists. Differences in secondary structures of the predicted patterns with respect to the spacing and alignment of graphic elements were consistent with the existence of fundamental differences in mental representation between the subject groups. Lack of expertise in the subject domain of the diagram was associated with the production of patterns containing meteorologically-arbitrary arrangements of graphic elements. It is suggested that science instruction should include explicit consideration of the higher order structures present in diagrams. Specializations: mental representation and processing of scientific diagrams, characteristics of explanatory illustrations, drawing and cognition, instructional design.     

Diagram information and its organisation in memory: Exploring the role of skill and experience

Two contrasting methods of investigation were used to characterise the basis upon which the mental representation of a scientific diagram was organised in individuals having different levels of experience and skill in the interpretation of this type of diagram. Each of these methods is described and several important methodological issues are discussed. In the first method (the Card Sort method), subjects performed a three-stage grouping of diagram elements in a card sorting task that produced an hierarchical ordering of the information constituting the diagram. In the second method (the Copy-Recall method), subjects copied then produced drawn recall of a given diagram. Measurements of the sequence in which diagram elements were produced and the time intervals between each production were used to infer the underlying cognitive structuring involved in the mental representation of the diagram information. Questions are raised concerning the way resulting data can be analysed and interpreted most effectively. Specializations: Mental representation and processing of scientific diagrams, characteristics of explanatory diagrams, visual aspects of problem solving, instructional design.     

Supporting coherence formation in learning from multiple representations

Multimedia learning environments combine multiple forms of representations like texts, static and animated pictures or graphs. Knowledge acquisition from multiple representations requires that the learner create referential connections between corresponding elements and corresponding structures in different representations. As this process is usually difficult, learners frequently fail to construct coherent mental representations and, thus, do not sufficiently understand the subject matter. This paper analyzes the effects of different kinds of instructional help on the process of coherence formation from multiple representations by learners with different prior knowledge. Three groups of university students with different domain-specific knowledge had to learn a complex subject matter from chemistry using six different forms of representation. In addition, a first group received directive help for coherence formation. A second group received non-directive help, and a third group received no instructional help. Results indicate that directive help is effective for recall performance because of its summarizing and repeating function. Furthermore, learners with different levels of prior knowledge show different reactions when help is given. For learners with insufficient prior knowledge help is not helpful or, in case of recall performance, even harmful. Learners with a medium level of prior knowledge can increase especially their comprehension performance when help is offered, whereas learners with too much prior knowledge seem not to be affected by help.     

Understanding teacher knowledge from a Cultural Psychology approach

In this paper we propose a Cultural Psychology approach to teacher knowledge which assumes that: 1) mental representations are directly observable, and 2) the relationship between different kinds of representations is co-mediational. The paper sets out such an approach, providing arguments to support these two alternative premises; outlining a methodology, based on social linguistics, for the direct observation of representations; and articulating the relationship between three types of representations: situational representations, specific propositional representations, and general propositional representations. We discuss the implications of this approach for research and practice in teacher education.     

Coordinating multiple representations of polynomials: What do patterns in students' solution strategies reveal?

We investigate the strategies used by 64 advanced secondary mathematics students to identify whether a given pair of polynomial representations (graphs, tables, or equations) corresponded to the same function on an assessment of coordinating representations. Participants also completed assessments of domain-related knowledge and background skills. Cluster analysis of strategies by representation pair revealed patterns in the participants' strategy use. Two clusters were identifiable on tasks that required matching equations to graphs and graphs to tables. We identified overlap between these two clusters, suggesting that while the representation pair influenced strategy choice, there was also a general distinction between students who used more and less sophisticated strategies. However, students who used more sophisticated coordination strategies were similar to the others on measures of domain-specific knowledge or background skills. We consider implications for future investigations testing interventions to promote coordinating representations.     

Translation of representations of the structure of matter and its relationship to reasoning,gender, spatial reasoning,and specific prior knowledge

The purpose of this study was to characterize high school chemistry students' ability to make translations between three representations of the structure of matter, and to determine the degree to which the students' ability to make these translations is related to reasoning ability, spatial reasoning ability, gender, and specific knowledge of the representations. Translation between formula, electron configuration, and ball-and-stick model representations of matter were chosen for study because of their promise for adding to knowledge of students' conceptual ecology, and because they may be of practical use for teaching and evaluation in chemistry classrooms. Representations have the characteristic that they embed selected details of the relevant concept or principle, but permit other details to fade. As one example, the chemical formula for water, H₂O, explicitly conveys the identity of the constituent elements and their ratio, but does not explicitly convey the bond angle or whether the bonds are single or double. On the other hand, the ball-and-stick model of water explicitly conveys the bond angle and bond orders, but does not emphasize the ratio of the elements. Translation between representations is an information processing task, requiring understanding of the underlying concept to the extent that the individual can interpret the information provided by the initial representation and infer the details required to construct the target representation. In this study, the use of the translations of representations as an indicator of understanding of chemical concepts is developed in terms of (a) its relationship to four variables associated with achievement in chemistry, (b) specific representation error types, and (c) its utility in revealing details of students' conceptions and concept formation. Translation of representation performance was measured by administering, audio recording, transcribing, and scoring individual, task-based, think-aloud interviews. The associated interview schedule was entitled Translation of Representations—Structure of Matter [TORSOM]. Reasoning ability was measured by the Group Assessment of Logical Thinking—short form (GALT-s), spatial reasoning ability by the spatial reasoning subtest of the Differential Abilities Test (SRDAT), and prior knowledge of the representations by a test developed by the first researcher (Knowledge of Representations—Structure of Matter). When each of the hypothetical correlates were regressed on TORSOM individually, results indicated the KORSOM and GALT-s but not gender or SRDAT were statistically significant (alpha = .05). The two-predictor model accounts for 28% of the variance in the TORSOM scores. Representation error types are described and exemplified.     

Sound representations in preschool students / Las representaciones del sonido en estudiantes de educación preescolar

Abstract

Studies of the representations that students construct, within the framework of embodied cognition, have shown that perception, action and cognition are linked and are the basis of these representations. From this framework of analysis, this study attempted to identified the representations of 23 preschool students (ages four and five) of sound production, perception and propagation. In-depth interviews were conducted using hypothetical situations and experimental tasks. Three representations were identified. The first one shows a conception of sound centred on objects. Representation 2 also focuses on objects and their relationship with the subject, but it begins to attribute characteristics to the sound itself, and in representation 3, sound has more intrinsic characteristics that expand its possibilities of interacting with the subject and other objects. We conclude that the construction of representations of sound starts from perceptual elements and is linked to actions, although its complexity also shows that they incorporate characteristics that go beyond this corporal correlate.     

Representational Tools in Computer-Supported Collaborative Argumentation-Based Learning: How Dyads Work With Constructed and Inspected Argumentative Diagrams

This article investigates the conditions under which diagrammatic representations support collaborative argumentation-based learning in a computer environment. Thirty dyads of 15- to 18-year-old students participated in a writing task consisting of 3 phases. Students prepared by constructing a representation (text or diagram) individually. Then they discussed the topic and wrote a text in dyads. They consolidated their knowledge by revising their individual representation. There were 3 conditions: Students could use either (a) the individual texts they wrote, (b) the individual diagrams they constructed, or (c) a diagram that was constructed for them based on the text they wrote. Results showed that students who constructed a diagram themselves explored the topic more than students in the other conditions. We also found differences in the way collaborating dyads used their representations. Dyads who engaged in deep discussion used their representations as a basis for knowledge construction. In contrast, dyads who engaged in only shallow discussion used their representations solely to copy information to their collaborative text. We conclude that diagrammatic representations can improve collaborative learning, but only when they are used in a co-constructive way.     

“Reading” scientific diagrams: Characterising components of skilled performance

Conclusion The interpretation of scientific diagrams has been characterised as a complex process. This contrasts sharply with an apparently widespread view among producers and users of resources for science teaching that they are generally unproblematic and that their meaning is usually quite transparent. The continued currency of this view is a matter of concern, especially when resources for learning in science are now so heavily based on pictorial presentation. It is likely that students who are new to scientific diagrams as a pictorial genre will look at them in a manner that is quite different from the way they are seen by their teachers. What seems to a teacher to be a straightforward and clearly presented depiction of a scientific concept, process or structure may be a mysterious and impenetrable abstraction to a student. Whereas the teacher is able to identify readily the elements of a diagram and link them into a coherent, meaningful whole, the student may misunderstand what it is that is depicted and how the depicted entitles are related. A critical factor underlying such differences appears to be the extent and nature of the mental representation of student and teacher. Both of these aspects of the mental representation of scientific diagrams would probably have to be addressed if there are to be improvements in the development of students' diagram interpretation skills. It does not seem sufficient merely to give students a huge diet of diagrams and assume that the necessary reading skills are either present or will develop by themselves. Rather, a deliberate programme designed to develop well structured mental representations of scientific diagrams should accompany efforts to build up an extensive knowledge base about this highly specialised form of visual display. Such a programme should be accompanied by instruction that develops appropriate processing strategies that allow students to gain maximum value from the diagrams they encounter.     

Comparing US and Japanese Elementary School Teachers' Facility for Linking Rational Number Representations

Using cognitive ethnography as a guiding framework, we investigated US and Japanese fourth-grade teachers' domain knowledge of key fraction representations in individual interviews. The framework focused on revealing cultural trends in participants' organization of knowledge and their interpretations of that organization. Our analyses of the interviews, which included a representation sorting task, indicated three major differences that defined US and Japanese teachers' approaches to rational number representation: (1) Japanese teachers interpreted all rational number representations as conveying primarily mathematical information, whereas US teachers interpreted only some representations as conveying primarily mathematical information; (2) the US teachers focused more intently on part-whole relations than Japanese in their interpretations; and (3) Japanese teachers more easily linked rational number representations to more advanced upcoming content in the curriculum. A review of US textbooks used by the teachers reflected their consistency with US teachers' interpretations of the representations. These findings imply that strong cultural differences underlay the approaches that teachers in both nations take to rational number representation and that these differences may help explain established cross-national differences in student reasoning.     

What recent research on diagrams suggests about learning with rather than learning from visual representations in science

The move from learning science from representations to learning science with representations has many potential and undocumented complexities. This thematic analysis partially explores the trends of representational uses in science instruction, examining 80 research studies on diagram use in science. These studies, published during 2000–2014, were located through searches of journal databases and books. Open coding of the studies identified 13 themes, 6 of which were identified in at least 10% of the studies: eliciting mental models, classroom-based research, multimedia principles, teaching and learning strategies, representational competence, and student agency. A shift in emphasis on learning with rather than learning from representations was evident across the three 5-year intervals considered, mirroring a pedagogical shift from science instruction as transmission of information to constructivist approaches in which learners actively negotiate understanding and construct knowledge. The themes and topics in recent research highlight areas of active interest and reveal gaps that may prove fruitful for further research, including classroom-based studies, the role of prior knowledge, and the use of eye-tracking. The results of the research included in this thematic review of the 2000–2014 literature suggest that both interpreting and constructing representations can lead to better understanding of science concepts.     

Dealing with graphic output from diagram processing tasks: Approaches to characterisation and analysis

The current relative lack of detailed knowledge about how learners interact with the types of diagrams used in instructional materials is partly due to the research difficulties in characterising the cognitive structures and processes involved in these interactions. One of these difficulties arises from the lack of research tools specifically designed for the collection and meaningful analysis of relevant data. This paper describes computer-based approaches developed to analyse and characterise graphic output produced during diagram processing tasks. Specializations: Mental representation and processing of scientific diagrams, characteristics of explanatory diagrams, visual aspects of problem solving, instructional design.     

Effect of format on learning disabled and non-learning disabled students' performance on a hands-on science assessment

Students with learning disabilities often perform poorly on multiple-choice tests that emphasize recall and factual knowledge. This study compared the effect of two alternative assessmentsa constructed diagram test and a written questionnaireon fourth-grade learning disabled (LD) and non-learning disabled (Non-LD) students' learning. As part of a larger investigation of different approaches to hands-on science learning, 172 students (including 33 LD students) in six urban and two suburban classrooms participated in the study. Results indicate that students' assessment outcomes are a function of learner status (LD, low, average and high achieving) and level of domain specific knowledge after instruction. After controlling for domain specific knowledge, students with LD, and low and average achieving students obtained higher scores on the constructed diagram test than on the questionnaire. High achieving students were not sensitive to format differences, performing comparably on the two measures. The facilitative effect of the diagram format may have been due to differences in the primary symbol systems (graphic vs. text) and the openness of the response format (constrained vs. open) of the constructed diagram and questionnaire, respectively.     

Involuntary mental time travel and its effect on prospective teachers' situational intrinsic motivations

Recent cognitive psychological research has argued that involuntary mental time travel is an important individual difference variable that has the potential to affect an individual's motivation. However, this issue has not been empirically investigated in educational settings such as teacher education. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the possible effect of involuntary mental time travel on prospective teachers' situational intrinsic motivations in the classrooms during the period of a class hour. A total of 274 prospective teachers voluntarily participated in the study. Results showed that involuntary mental time travel into the past and into the future occurred in the classrooms even during the period of a class hour. The characteristics of the prospective teachers' involuntary memories/future images were evident. Most importantly, results revealed that the teaching-related positive future images significantly and positively affected the prospective teachers' situational intrinsic motivations regardless of the effects of their current situational intrinsic motivations regarding their classes.     

Visual Representations of DNA Replication: Middle Grades Students’ Perceptions and Interpretations

Visual representations play a critical role in the communication of science concepts for scientists and students alike. However, recent research suggests that novice students experience difficulty extracting relevant information from representations. This study examined students’ interpretations of visual representations of DNA replication. Each of the four steps of DNA replication included in the instructional presentation was represented as a text slide, a simple 2D graphic, and a rich 3D graphic. Participants were middle grade girls (n = 21) attending a summer math and science program. Students’ eye movements were measured as they viewed the representations. Participants were interviewed following instruction to assess their perceived salient features. Eye tracking fixation counts indicated that the same features (look zones) in the corresponding 2D and 3D graphics had different salience. The interviews revealed that students used different characteristics such as color, shape, and complexity to make sense of the graphics. The results of this study have implications for the design of instructional representations. Since many students have difficulty distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information, cueing and directing student attention through the instructional representation could allow cognitive resources to be directed to the most relevant material.     

Singapore Students' Perceptions of Graphs,Charts and Maps

Graphs, charts and maps are often used to present quantitative information. Students learn about these in geography, mathematics and other subjects across the curriculum. From contact with school teachers it has been found that many students have problems with graphic representations. This is often seen as a problem of teaching method rather than a problem concerning students' understanding. Studies in Sweden (Ottosson & Aberg-Bengtsson, 1995) and Australia (Gerber et al., 1995) confirm that it is not teaching methods alone that matter. The studies also indicate that the meanings assigned by beholders of graphs, charts and maps are closely linked to their life experiences. This is similarly so for Singapore students. Over thirty students ranging from 11 to 20 years of age were interviewed on their interpretation of a set of graphs, charts and maps of an imaginary world. A phenomenographic analysis shows that the students experienced considerable variations in their perceptions of graphic representations of quantitative data (graphs, charts and maps). These variations are represented in an outcome space diagram showing three major levels of understanding.