Gender Earnings Gap among Young European Higher Education Graduates

This paper examines the composition of the gender earnings gap among young European higher education graduates, with a particular focus on competencies controlling for individual background and job characteristics. The results show that much of the female worker’s earnings advantage can be explained by job characteristics. With respect to the competencies required at current jobs, we find that foreign language proficiency and computer skills play a large role in explaining part of the female earnings advantage. Additionally, estimation results by each one of the countries included in the analysis show that gender earning gaps are disparate in size as well as in composition.     

How Do Academic Achievement and Gender Affect the Earnings of STEM Majors? A Propensity Score Matching Approach

The United States government recently enacted a number of policies designed to increase the number of American born students graduating with degrees in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), especially among women and racial and ethnic minorities. This study examines how the earnings benefits of choosing a STEM major vary both by gender and across the distribution of academic achievement. I account for the selection into college major using propensity score matching. Measures of individual educational preferences based on Holland’s theory of career and educational choice provide a unique way to control for college major selection. Findings indicate that the earnings benefit to STEM major choice ranges from 5 to 28 % depending both on academic achievement and on gender and that high-achieving students benefit more from STEM major choice. Further, high achieving men benefit more from STEM majors than high-achieving women. Earnings differences in major choice may play an important role in explaining the underrepresentation of women in STEM major fields, especially among high achieving students.     

How do young people choose college majors?

Previous studies on the determinants of the choice of college major have assumed a constant probability of success across majors or a constant earnings stream across majors. Our model disregards these two restrictive assumptions in computing an idiosyncratic expected earnings variable to explain the probability that a student will choose a specific major among four choices of concentrations. The construction of an expected earnings variable requires information on the student's perceived probability of success, the predicted earnings of graduates in all majors and the student's expected earnings if he (she) fails to complete a college program. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we evaluate the chances of success in all majors for all the individuals in the sample. Second, the individuals' predicted earnings of graduates in all majors are obtained using Rumberger and Thomas's [Econ. Educ. Rev. 12 (1993) 1] regression estimates from a 1987 Survey of Recent College Graduates. Third, we obtain idiosyncratic estimates of earnings alternative of not attending college or by dropping out with a condition derived from our college major decision-making model applied to our sample of college students. Finally, with a mixed multinomial logit and probit models and an heteroscedastic extreme value model, we explain the individuals' choice of a major. The results of the paper show that the expected earnings variable is essential in the choice of a college major. There are, however, significant differences in the impact of expected earnings by gender and race.     

Gender gaps in early wage expectations

Using detailed data from a unique survey of high school graduates in Germany, we document a gender gap in expected full-time earnings of more than 15%. We decompose this early gender gap and find that especially differences in coefficients help explain different expectations. In particular, the effects of having time for family as career motive and being first-generation college student are associated with large penalties in female wage expectations exclusively. This is especially true for higher expected career paths. Resulting expected returns to education are associated with college enrollment of women and could thus entrench subsequent gaps in realized earnings.     

Gender differences in employment and starting salaries of business majors during the 1980s: The impact of college-acquired characteristics

This study identifies changes in employment and starting salary gaps among business graduates by gender during the 1980s. Although national data indicate that both employment conditions and earnings improved for women in general over the past decade, our results indicate that, at least for a select group of younger women, labor market conditions were mixed. First, female graduates majoring in business found it less difficult, both in absolute and relative terms, to secure full-time employment after graduation throughout the 1980s. That is, the employment success rate for these females increased relative to their male counterparts. Second, regardless of whether mean, regression, or decomposition analysis is used to calculate the gender gap in starting salaries, the gap continued to increase throughout the last decade. In addition, both the regression and decomposition results suggest that the mean starting salaries gap underestimated the actual gap for the two periods studied. Finally, the study suggests that of the college-acquired characteristics found to be significant determinants of employment success and starting salaries in the early 1980s, only academic achievement continued to play a significant positive role by the end of the decade.     

Mathematics and Language Skills and the Choice of Science Subjects in Secondary Education

A growing shortage of technical and science graduates means that the question of determinants of differences in performance and choices in that field based, among other things, on social background characteristics (gender, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, family composition) remains a topical one. In this study, a rational choice model is proposed in which background-specific comparative advantages in different subjects are in focus. Secondary analyses of a large-scale cohort study (VOCL) show that in addition to the most important explanatory variable, namely gender, the gap between mathematical and language skills makes a relevant contribution in predicting the choice of science subjects in secondary education. This gap can, in turn, be predicted on the basis of gender and family composition.     

Earnings among young and mature Danish university graduates

This paper studies the association between graduation age and earnings among university graduates in Denmark, which is a country with one of the oldest student populations in the world. Exploiting a rich data-set from administrative registers, the current study is able to track labour market career for a longer period of time and to control for more labour market-relevant variables than any previous study of graduation age and earnings. The results show that graduation age has either a slightly positive or an insignificant impact on starting wages within the public sector or a negative impact on starting wages among private sector employees. This applies to both genders, but the differences are stronger among male employees. The analyses of long-term wages reveal a more homogeneous pattern. Mature graduates earn less in all the years investigated. The wage differences are greatest among male graduates employed in private enterprises, and the gap increases throughout their careers.     

Gender differences in French undergraduates’ academic plans and wage expectations

Gender differences in wage expectations may affect investment in human capital and increase inequalities in the labour market. Our research based on a survey of first-year students at a French university aims to focus on expectations at the beginning of the career. Our results show that anticipated earnings differ significantly between men and women. One year after graduation, we find a gender gap in pay of 16%. A wage decomposition method indicates that most of this effect is due to anticipation of discrimination. Ten years after graduation, anticipated discrimination is still almost as dominant in explaining the gender gap in pay. Finally, using a survey of recent college graduates, we show that growth in the anticipated gender gap differs greatly from growth in the observed gender gap. Our findings highlight the importance of policies promoting higher educational aspirations for young women. Career guidance counselling for students may play a decisive role in contributing to give women more ambitious aspirations, which may in turn serve to reduce inequalities in the labour market.     

The impact of student academic achievement on graduate salaries: the case of a leading Russian university

This paper analyses the impact of academic achievement on future salaries by looking into the grade point average (GPA)-earnings relationship for graduates of a leading Russian university. The study is based on pooled cross-sectional graduate survey data for 2014–2015. The issue of how student academic achievement impacts future labour market rewards is analysed through academic, demographic and labour market factors. We found that there is a significant positive impact of GPA on salaries of BA graduates (9–12% wage premium for an additional GPA point) and an insignificant or negative impact for MA programmes graduates. The study depicts that this negative effect can be partially explained by employment sector-specific variables. Among the main factors which positively affect earnings of graduates is work experience. Graduates who combined study and work achieve a 30% wage premium. However, there is no evidence that combining study and work affects student academic achievement, even for those who combined studies with full-time job. Despite the higher GPA of female students, male graduates’ earnings are 18% higher. Gender wage differences can be explained by gender distribution by the sector of employment: the over-representation of women in the low-paid education and science sectors and their under-representation in entrepreneurship and corporate sector.     

高等教育对美国大学生就业的影响

本研究将大学教育的经济回报分析扩展到毕业后十年,进一步考察了大学教育对于学生毕业后第一个十年内失业可能性的影响。本研究还验证了大学质量对毕业生收入有积极影响,同时不同本科专业之间存在巨大差异。然而,这两个主要因素对毕业生失业可能性的影响却截然不同:一方面,高质量私立大学的毕业生虽然在各类型高校的毕业生中享有最高的平均收入,但其失业的可能性也最大;另一方面,较其他专业毕业生而言,就读于高需求专业如商学、医学等的毕业生,其失业可能性也较低。     

Earnings expectation and graduate employment: Evidence from recent Chinese college graduates

Chinese college graduates have faced increasing labor market competition since the expansion of tertiary education. Given rigid market demand, graduates with realistic earnings expectations may experience a more efficient job search. Using the 2008 MYCOS College Graduate Employment Survey, this study finds that a 1 000 yuan reduction in a graduate’s reservation wage can significantly increase the probability of finding a job by 66% and increase the likelihood of being employed six months after graduation by 92%. In addition, the gap between the reservation wage and the market wage has a positive impact. By slightly adjusting earnings expectations, college graduates can significantly improve job search efficiency. Market wages should be seen as reference points when adjusting income expectations.     

Evaluating and designing student loan systems: An overview of empirical approaches

To understand and design student loan systems, realistic earnings and/or income projections for current and future graduates are crucial. In this paper, Current Population Survey (CPS) data from the US is used to demonstrate empirical approaches that can be exploited to simulate lifetime income and earnings profiles for graduates which are needed to understand and design effective and sustainable student loan systems. The crucial element in getting this analysis correct is having reliable simulations of the whole distribution of future graduate earnings and income. Typically, in this literature, the repayment burdens (RBs) of student loans are calculated at different quantiles of the graduate income or earnings distribution. Often, unconditional quantile regression (UQR) is used to calculate age–earnings profiles for different quantiles of the income or earnings distribution. The paper shows that this approach has limitations when evaluating student loans and that simple raw quantile estimation by age with some age smoothing is preferable. This approach can also be used when income is censored and recorded in income bands as occurs with relevant data in some countries. The paper shows a simple way of incorporating dynamics utilizing these age–earnings profiles by quantile even when only very short panel data is available. This involves using copula functions. Having reliable dynamic estimates turns out to be important in assessing not only the taxpayer costs of designing an income-contingent loan (ICL) but also for correctly assessing the extent of loan repayment hardship for individuals.     

Student Veterans’ Outcomes by Higher Education Sector: Evidence from Three Cohorts of the Baccalaureate and Beyond

We use nationally representative survey data from three cohorts of bachelor’s degree recipients to examine military veterans’ student loan debt at graduation and their employment and earnings 1, 4, and 10 years after graduation, relative to observably similar graduates. We also examine whether the effects of veteran status depend on college sector. Using propensity score weights with covariate adjustment, we find employment and earnings premiums for veterans 1 and 4 years after graduation, and an employment penalty but earnings premium (conditional on employment) 10 years after graduation. We find no clear evidence of a for-profit employment or earnings penalty among bachelor’s degree recipients, including veterans. We do find that veterans are as likely as similar non-veterans to graduate with debt, and that graduating from a for-profit institution yields markedly higher debt amounts, especially for veterans, despite the availability of Montgomery GI Bill benefits for these cohorts.     

Students’ expectations about earnings and employment and the experience of recent university graduates: Evidence from Cyprus

The employability of university graduates constitutes a major policy concern in both developed and developing nations. In this context, the present study uses self-reported data to compare the earnings and employment expectations of university students, and the realised earnings and employment paths of recent graduates. The sample consisted of 476 individuals (243 students and 233 graduates of the University of Cyprus). The analysis points to both differences and similarities in the effect of different variables on (a) the probability of employment for graduates and the probability of expected employment for students, and (b) the conditional salary of graduates and the conditional expected salary of students. The completion of postgraduate studies, the area of family residence and the department of study are the key factors affecting the graduates’ employment probability, while the students’ probability of expected employment is determined differently, namely by characteristics such as secondary education performance and studies in the business administration department. Gender and family income are among the main determinants of both the graduates’ actual earnings and the students’ expected earnings, with women earning or expecting to earn less than men, and graduates/students with higher family incomes earning or anticipating to earn more than their lower income counterparts. The findings are compared to those of similar studies in other countries.     

高校毕业生为何“有业不就”——基于理性选择理论的解读

当前大学生就业难问题严峻,但是却有人“有业不就”。文章运用理性选择理论分析发现：物质资本、人力资本和社会资本对“有业不就”有着一定的影响;毕业生出于经济利益、工作满足及情感满足等目的而选择“有业不就”;当前的户籍制度和雇佣制度制约着高校毕业生的行动。高校毕业生“有业不就”是一种理性行动。     

本科生与研究生婚恋观的特点研究

采用苏红编制的大学生婚恋观问卷,对304名本科生和研究生婚恋观的特点及其差异进行测量。研究结果发现,本科生和研究生在婚恋观的性爱抉择维度上、恋爱动机维度上以及婚姻自主维度上,存在显著的性别差异;在性爱抉择维度和婚姻角色维度上,存在显著的恋爱状态差异;在性爱抉择维度和婚姻忠诚维度上,本科生和研究生存在显著差异。由此可以得出如下结论：性别、恋爱状态等因素影响本科生和研究生的婚恋观;相比男生,女生在性爱抉择上更保守,恋爱动机更清晰,但婚姻自主度较低;相比曾经恋爱过的群体,正在恋爱的群体在性爱抉择上更传统,在婚姻角色上更加开放;相比研究生,本科生在性爱抉择上更保守,对婚姻的认识上也更忠诚。     

Wage earning differentials by field of study: Evidence from Vietnamese university graduates

Using data from the 2018 Labor Force Survey, this paper analyzes wage differentials by field of study among Vietnamese university graduates. In contrast to previous findings, we find that many fields, even more technically and quantitatively oriented disciplines, such as engineering, science/math/computer science and business/finance, afford lower earnings than do the arts/humanities disciplines. The differences are statistically significant and, in many cases, large, even after controlling for other individual and regional characteristics. Also, the differences are greater among female than among male graduates. Our results shed light on the value of various types of human capital represented by the various disciplines. Such findings offer useful policy implications for policymakers and educational managers.     

Where the boys aren't: non-cognitive skills, returns to school and the gender gap in higher education

Nearly 60 percent of college students today are women. Using longitudinal data on a nationally representative cohort of eighth grade students in 1988, I examine two potential explanations for the differential attendance rates of men and women—returns to schooling and non-cognitive skills. The attendance gap is roughly five percentage points for all high school graduates. Conditional on attendance, however, there are few differences in type of college, enrollment status or selectivity of institution. The majority of the attendance gap can be explained by differences in the characteristics of men and women, despite some gender differences in the determinants of college attendance. I find that higher non-cognitive skills and college premiums among women account for nearly 90 percent of the gender gap in higher education. Interestingly, non-cognitive factors continue to influence college enrollment after controlling for high school achievement.     

The effect of education on relative earnings of black and white women

This paper examines the extent to which black females have closed the earnings gap between themselves and white females in the urban South. It examines earnings and occupational data for fully employed females in the same labor market—a sample of large southern metropolitan areas—at the same point in time, 1970; and at the same educational level—high school, some college, and college graduates.The study shows sizable gains for black females, particularly younger black females with some college, not only in earnings, but in occupational status. Thus, educational credentials were extremely important to urban southern black women in 1970. Finally, the study suggests that black women with at least a high school education appear to have been principal beneficiaries of southern employer response to the Civil Rights Act of 1964.