West German science policy since the early 1960's: trends and objectives

The trends in West German science policy since the early 1960' are analyzed and compared to other industrially advanced countries. Government expenditures on research and development (R & D) are compared in their totality and also with regard to specific objectives such as defence, civil space, civil nuclear, general advancement of science, mining and manufacturing, agriculture, economic and social services.The trend of total government expenditure on R & D in West Germany iss characterized by a growth rate higher than in many other countries, such as the USA, the UK, France, Japan and the Netherlands. Also in each of the single objectives of government R & D, West German expenditure as a rule grew faster than in these countries. Among the different objectives, “general advancement of science” is given highest priority in West Germany, whereas the military sector is relatively small. In both trends and priorities, West Germany is more similar to Japan and the Netherlands than to the USA, the UK and France.The author discusses motives and intentions which may have affected these trends. He argues that West German science policy cannot be understood as a response to immediate economic problems, such as labour shortage or an alleged lag in technological progress in West German industry. In the early sixties West German science policy was still determined by efforts to catch up in certain technological fields from which West Germany had been excluded up to 1955 by allies' restrictions. In the late sixties, concern focussed on West Germany's long-term technological competitiveness in general.     

产业特征对技术创新激励政策效应的交互影响

   有关技术创新激励政策效应的研究对产业特征的关注还不充分,影响了对激励政策产业层面效应的深入理解。本文认为更为系统地重审技术创新激励政策的效应,有必要将产业市场竞争度与产业技术吸收能力同步纳入研究模型,因为它们分别影响产业创新主体的技术创新动机和技术创新能力。当产业市场竞争度与产业技术吸收能力都处于高水平时,技术创新激励政策对产业技术创新的正向效应最为明显。实证数据来自和五类使能技术的应用密切相关的16个制造业的2013—2017年的数据,包括R&D资本存量、全时人员当量、发明专利申请数、新产品开发项目数、新产品销售收入数据,和以DEA视窗方法计算得到的产业技术创新绩效数据,分析结果表明：产业技术吸收能力放大了税收优惠政策对技术创新绩效的正向作用;但是R&D补贴政策对于技术吸收能力低的产业有更高的正向效应;当技术市场竞争度高时,技术吸收力对税收优惠与R&D补贴的正向促进作用最高。本研究深化了对技术创新激励政策的作用机理的理解,并提示政策制定者需要充分重视产业的市场竞争度。     

新能源汽车产业政府补助与市场融资的创新激励效应

本文选取2015-2018年新能源汽车产业110家上市公司面板数据,探索政府补助与市场融资及其协同配合对企业研发创新影响的差异性。结果显示,新能源汽车产业政府补助对企业研发创新具有显著激励效应,市场融资并未显著促进企业研发创新,政府补助与市场融资协同配合能有效促进新能源汽车产业研发创新。通过进一步研究发现,处于不同新能源汽车产业链阶段的企业,政府补助对中上游企业研发创新的激励效应更大,而市场融资对下游企业研发创新的激励效应更大,政府补助与市场融资协同配合对中上游企业研发创新的激励效应更大。同时,相对于国有企业,新能源汽车产业政府补助与市场融资及其两者协同配合对非国有企业研发创新的激励效应更大。本文在一定程度上丰富了创新激励与政府干预理论,并为政府扶持新能源汽车产业精准设计创新政策提供理论指导。     

Government policies towards industrial innovation: a review

Existing economic theories show that continuing innovation, diffusion, and technical and managerial improvement are necessary for economic growth and international competitiveness in the industrially advanced countries. But knowledge of why, where and how governments should intervene in the processes of industrial innovations stems more from trial and error than from systematic empirical information of the nature and extent of the hindrances to economically and socially desirable innovations, and of the effectiveness of alternative government policies to remove them. Nonetheless, past empirical studies do offer some clues.Differences amongst industrial sectors. The sources of new technology vary widely amongst inustrial sectors: in the costs of innovation, in the relative importance of outside suppliers of equipment and materials, of large and small firms, and of full-time R & D departments as compared to part-time innovative activities (sect. 7, 8). Similarly, the conditions for successful innovation vary amongst sectors (sect.6). Thus, government policies designed to influence innovation are likely to act with different intensities in different industries.The management of innovation. Nonetheless, there are some features common to innovation in different industries. Considerable costs beyond R & D are often necessary before the innovations reach commercial use (sect.4). And the following managerial characteristics are in general associated with successful innovation: a deliberate policy of seeking innovations; close and careful attention to customer requirements; good personal communications both within the firm and with outside sources of relevant knowledge; a style of management that is ‘organic’ and ‘participatory’ rather than ‘hierarchical’ and ‘authoritarian’; strong project leadership; and a strong engineering capability (sect. 6).R & D managers are still unable to predict the outcome of R & D projects to a useful degree of accuracy and, in the literature on methods of project selection, very little attention is paid to market uncertainties. Furthermore, a greater use of conventional investment appraisal criteria in deciding on R & D projects may re-inforce the already observed tendency in industry towards short-term, low-risk projects, to the neglect of longer-term, high-risk projects (sect. 5).Governments should therefore examine whether the benefits of policies towards education and management advisory services for innovation might outweigh their costs. They may also have a significant role to play in financing longer-term research that is basic to the development of industrial technology (subsect. 12.5).The nature of market and production demands. The direction of industrial innovation is often very sensitive to market and production demands (sect. 3). This fact, together with the high degree of market uncertainty facing innovating firms (sect. 5), suggest that governments can potentially influence both the pace and the direction of industrial innovation through their influence on the scale of industrial, consumer and public service demands. However, this potential influence will become real only if users of innovations are able to specify the innovations that they need, or to evaluate those that they get. This is generally the case for industrial demand, but not in consumer and public service markets, where fashion, insensitivity to users' needs and lack of technical competence often prevail. Government-funded technological institutes and laboratories are ideally placed to provide such technical competence (sub-sect. 12.3).Economic incentives and rewards for innovation. A whole range of economic factors are said to influence the resources, the incentives and the rewards for innovation: for example, the degree of monopoly or the degree of competition, the patent system, the level of profits, the level of taxation, and the level of demand. The empirical evidence on the effects of most of these factors on industrial innovation is either inconclusive or non-existent. However, in the USA a close relationship has been observed between growth of industry sales and growth of industry-financed R & D activities (sect. 10). The rate of growth of demand is also one of the key factors influencing the rate of diffusion of innovations amongst their potential population of users (sects. 11, 12.2).The government-financed scientific and technological infrastructure. Scientific and technological knowledge from outside of innovating firms is often crucial to the completion of successful innovations, and three UK studies show that a significant proportion of this outside knowledge comes from government-financed technological institutes and laboratories, and from the universities (sect. 3). If the same is true in other countries, it should be an essential feature of any government policy towards industrial innovation to know how effectively government-funded laboratories and universities provide supportive knowledge to industry, and how government laboratories should be organised and financed (subsect. 12.4).Direct government-financing of innovative activities in industry. Governments specifically finance R & D activities in industrial firms, although these expenditures are less than those for general industrial development (sect. 13). These R & D activities in industry are relatively more important in France and UK, than in F.R. Germany and the Netherlands.In the four countries, more than 70% of all civilian government R & D activities related to industry are spent on aircraft, space, nuclear energy and electronics (subsect. 14.4). In all these high technologies, governments attempted in the 1960's to implement ‘policies for innovation’, involving government procurement, industrial mergers and attempts at European co-operation, in addition to the financing of R & D (subsect. 14.5). Government expenditures on civilian R & D related to other industrial sectors are very much smaller in all four countries (subsect 14.4).Where should governments intervene? A, number of attempts have been made to develop a formal framework of criteria to assist governments in deciding where they should intervene in industrial innovation. They all run into the following difficulties: dealing with multiple policy objectives; assessing national costs and benefits; comparing with alternative policies, choosing appropriate policy instruments (sect. 17).How should governments intervene? Very little information is available on the effectiveness of various policy instruments that have been used by governments in order to promote innovation in industry. Although it is often possible to measure the inputs into such policies, the measurement of their outputs (or results) is more difficult. Nonetheless, detailed studies would enable some such measurements to be made, and internationally comparable studies would increase the range of experiences and the number of cases that could be examined (sect. 18).Why should governments intervene? A full appreciation of the nature and scale of hindrances to industrial innovation, on which governments should act to remove, requires direct information on what innovations are (or are not) being introduced by industry, and why they are (or are not) being inyroduced. This information can best be obtained from analyses of the behaviour of industrial firms. They would differ from most existing innovation studies that concentrate on asking how firms must behave in order to make successful innovation, by asking what innovations are attempted, and why firms are stimulated to attempt them (sect. 19).     

价格管制、战略性创新激励与创新药市场绩效

构建多阶段动态博弈模型,研究竞争市场中,政府的战略性创新激励政策、价格管制政策和医保支付政策对制药企业创新激励和创新药市场绩效的综合作用机制。研究表明:价格管制并非总是降低制药企业的创新激励,在一定条件下,价格管制能够引导企业的创新投入实现社会最优配置;价格管制政策和医保支付政策合理匹配,可实现制药企业、医疗机构、患者、医保机构和政府的"多赢";政府的战略性创新激励政策能够对制药企业的创新投入进行双向调节,引导其实现社会最优配置,进而提高制药企业的利润和社会总福利;当管制价格高于社会最优的管制价格时,提高医保福利水平和降低管制价格均会削弱战略性创新激励政策的实施效果。     

政府补贴对纺织企业研发投入的影响

本文基于资源基础理论、信号传递理论及制度观等,以我国纺织行业上市公司为研究样本,研究政府补贴对纺织企业研发投入的影响,并分析地区知识产权保护水平与企业所有权性质的调节作用。研究发现:政府补贴在一定界限内会促进研发投入增加,超过一定界限时会产生挤出效应,政府补贴与研发投入之间呈倒U形关系;企业所有权性质与地区知识产权保护水平都有显著调节效应,政府补贴发挥的激励作用在民营企业内更强,在地区知识产权保护水平较高的地方也较强;联合调节作用表现为:当地区知识产权保护水平较高时,政府补贴对研发投入的影响会因为企业所有权性质不同而有较大差异,且在民营企业内促进作用更显著,反之,政府补贴对研发投入的影响程度在国有和民营企业中差异不明显;政府补贴与企业研发投入之间的关系在纺织业、纺织服装业、化纤制造业3个子行业中有区别,政府研发补贴对化纤制造业研发投入激励作用最大,其次是纺织服装业,而纺织业中则不显著。     

产业集群升级中的匹配性地方政府行为——以浙江海宁皮革产业集群为例

以处于升级发展阶段的浙江省海宁皮革产业集群为例,通过对集群企业的问卷调查,实证发现地方政府在帮助集群企业与顾客联接、推动集群企业协同升级、促成集群企业之间结网、区域环境建设等四个方面进行了努力,并据此提出促进我国产业集群升级发展的政策建议。     

放松卖空管制与基于研发费用的盈余管理

本文以2008-2016年沪深A股上市公司为样本,采用双重差分模型及倾向得分匹配下的双重差分模型,考察了放松卖空管制对企业基于研发费用的盈余管理行为的影响。结果表明：放松卖空管制促使上市公司削减研发费用;其背后的原因在于卖空机制强化了管理者削减研发费用进行盈余管理的动机;这一现象在市场化程度高的地区更明显,但在管理者持有长期股权激励的公司中得到了有效抑制,且长期股权激励的治理效用在市场化程度高的地区依然存在。进一步研究排除了投资机会改变等替代性解释,证明放松卖空管制后管理者削减研发费用确实是盈余管理动机增强所致。本研究扩展了对卖空机制实施效果的理论认知,为公司外部环境和内部治理关系的研究提供了新视角。     

国外激励企业R＆D的财政政策趋势研究

通过对激励企业R＆D财政政策的研究，认为政府对企业R＆D的激励力度逐步加大；中小企业研发、合作研发和跨国公司研发是各国财政政策的支持重点。激励政策工具主要有直接资助和间接激励。越来越多的国家倾向于间接激励方式。许多国家开始采用研发人员个人所得税优惠政策。对我国研发激励政策提出相关建议。     

Innovation and government intervention: A comparison of Singapore and Hong Kong

Government is one of the determinants for innovation capacity although its role and degree of involvement in innovation is debatable. Government intervention can be vital in supporting R&D and innovation as market alone cannot provide adequate incentives for knowledge production. Degrees of government intervention, however, vary in different economies and range from directive intervention by actively advising industrial policy and investing in selected areas, to facilitative intervention by creating positive environment and providing public goods for industry. This study uses Singapore and Hong Kong as two cases to explore the influence of government intervention on innovation performance. Singapore is known for strong government intervention while Hong Kong is famous for its positive non-intervention policy that minimizes the power of government in influencing the market. The comparison shows that innovation activities in Singapore are largely policy driven and dominated by big players, while in Hong Kong industry innovation is less active but the local industry has a dynamic innovation base contributed by small firms. Using a difference-in-differences analysis of USPTO patents filed by Singapore and Hong Kong, we find evidence for the effectiveness of government intervention on enhancing the technological significance and scope of innovation. The findings could shed light on the implication of government involvement in innovation.     

Explaining Internet Connectivity

This article provides a framework by which rival firms' incentives for interconnection in unregulated telecommunications markets may be analyzed and argues that the widespread voluntary interconnection observed among Internet service providers (ISPs) is anomalous when compared with examples of other similar markets from U.S. industrial history. However, the fact that it is anomalous provides an opportunity to test common explanations and to explore new explanations for the remarkable connectivity observed among ISPs through a comparative analysis. The comparative analysis reveals that (1) network effects and competitive forces in telecommunications markets will not necessarily drive firms to interconnect their networks voluntarily as there are other options to them, and (2) government actions played an important role in shaping the interconnection behavior competing firms in telecommunications markets. The article then explores some of the implications of these findings for telecommunications policy, and interconnection regulation in particular.     

家族控制权强度对企业科技创新行为影响研究

本文基于2007-2016年中国家族企业的科技创新数据,利用多项logit模型和固定效应模型,从研发投入和成果应用两阶段这一新视角,研究了家族管理权强度、所有权强度对企业科技创新行为的影响。研究发现：在研发投入阶段,不同控制权强度抑制资本投入;在成果应用阶段,不同控制权强度促进成果应用效益;相对于所有权强度,家族管理权强度对企业科技创新影响更强。本文认为,政府应重点加强研发投入方面的政策支持。     

Explaining Internet Connectivity

This article provides a framework by which rival firms' incentives for interconnection in unregulated telecommunications markets may be analyzed and argues that the widespread voluntary interconnection observed among Internet service providers (ISPs) is anomalous when compared with examples of other similar markets from U.S. industrial history. However, the fact that it is anomalous provides an opportunity to test common explanations and to explore new explanations for the remarkable connectivity observed among ISPs through a comparative analysis. The comparative analysis reveals that (1) network effects and competitive forces in telecommunications markets will not necessarily drive firms to interconnect their networks voluntarily as there are other options to them, and (2) government actions played an important role in shaping the interconnection behavior competing firms in telecommunications markets. The article then explores some of the implications of these findings for telecommunications policy, and interconnection regulation in particular.     

Monitoring technical managers: Theory,evidence, and prescriptions

In the modern economy, a division of labor is a division of knowledge. The challenge of limited information and goal conflict within organizations takes on special salience in the presence of technology. In order to manage technical managers, general managers and executives must judge proposals beyond their direct knowledge. Technical managers may, through opportunism or overconfidence, suggest overinvestment in technology. Analyzing a dataset of information technology hardware and staff spending by large multidivisional firms during a growth phase of US IT spending, results suggest that technical managers significantly overspent on hardware, with negative consequences for performance. Chief executive experience significantly altered the effects of overspending. Solutions to the problem of monitoring technical managers are suggested, including socialization, auditing, and incentives.     

我国政府R&D税收优惠强度的测算及影响效应检验

本文运用R&D税收优惠的METC、B指数和R&D使用成本等三个指标测算了我国政府对企业R&D税收优惠强度,并与世界主要国家指标进行比较,发现我国R&D税收优惠强度居于中等水平。在以我国1995~2008年的28个制造业数据为样本的实证检验中,发现政府R&D税收优惠对企业R&D支出的激励效应是显著的,而且在高科技企业中激励效应更为明显。本文的政策启示在于我国政府应调整R&D资助方式,逐渐加大对企业R&D税收优惠的范围和幅度,不断降低政府直接资助的比重。     

研发投资、能力积累与全要素生产率提升

本文基于反射法测算了中国制造业出口企业能力积累指标,依据测算结果展示了中国微观企业能力积累的差异与分布情况,并以2000-2006年工业企业数据库与海关数据库的微观数据为样本,构建实证模型考察了企业研发投资、能力积累与全要素生产率提升之间的关系。结果发现：企业研发与能力积累都有助于全要素生产率提高,中国企业在总体上表现出了产品创新生产模式的特点;对于异质性企业样本估计结果,非国有企业与税收优惠企业表现出产品创新生产模式的特点,国有企业与补贴企业表现出过程创新生产模式的特点;中国在高技术行业与中高技术行业尚未表现在出产品创新模式的特征。中国应减少选择性产业政策,采用更具普惠性的税收优惠政策,更好的发挥市场竞争作用,激励企业的产品创新模式与生产率水平提高。     

薪酬制度与组织文化的匹配性实证研究——以浙江省高新企业为例

根据薪酬制度的权变观点,探讨薪酬制度与组织文化的匹配关系。从是否采用能力工资、有否长期激励以及可变薪酬比例三个方面分析薪酬制度与组织文化对员工的薪酬满意度和离职倾向的影响,研究结果表明,采用能力工资的企业与没有采用能力工资的企业相比,其组织的创新、目标、支持、规则导向都比较强;可变薪酬的比例与企业的规则导向有显著的负相关;与没有提供长期激励的企业相比,具有长期激励的企业目标导向更强。薪酬制度与企业文化联合作用,能显著影响员工的薪酬满意度。薪酬满意度与组织的目标导向及支持导向交互作用,共同影响员工的离职倾向。     

中国稀土产业发展财政支持效应及其影响因素

研究中国稀土产业发展财政支持效应对于完善稀土产业政策理论、优化财政支持政策体系和实现稀土产业可持续发展具有重要价值。本文以中国稀土上市公司为样本,构建了基于SBM-DEA四阶段分析方法的财政支持效率评价模型和基于面板FGLS估计方法的影响因素模型,测算和分析了2010—2019年中国稀土产业财政支持效率及其影响因素,并区分稀土产业链前后端进行比较研究。结果表明：①中国稀土产业的财政支持效率年平均值为1.313,财政支持对65%的稀土上市公司具有“激励效应”,整体达到了财政支持政策设计目标,但仍对35%的稀土上市公司存在“挤出效应”;②稀土产业链前端和后端的财政支持效率年平均值分别为1.145和1.377,后端的财政支持“激励效应”显著大于前端,财政支持有利于推动稀土产业链向后端延伸;③稀土产业财政支持效率随时间推移整体呈下降趋势,“激励效应”逐渐转为“挤出效应”,专项政策的出台能够在短期内提升财政支持效率,但长期效果有限;④财政支持强度与稀土产业财政支持效率之间呈“倒U型”关系,企业规模对稀土产业财政支持效率具有显著正效应。本文深化了财政支持对中国稀土产业发展效应问题的认识,可为中国稀土产业的差异化财政支持政策制订提供参考。     

The Employment of German Scientists in Australia after World War II

Soon after the end of World War II the Australian Government brought scientists of defeated Germany to Australia. They were to work in government institutions and private industry to contribute their expertise to improving Australian science and to improving Australia's industrial efficiency. The Allied powers occupying Germany were engaged in a scramble to appropriate German expertise for the next phase of the arms race. The Australian Employment of Scientific and Technical Enemy Aliens Scheme (ESTEA) instead channeled its personnel to basic science and industrial research. The personnel were part human reparations, part invited experts. This curious scheme offers insight into attitudes towards industrial regeneration in a previous era, and the importance of context in shaping attempts to alter existing scientific and industrial cultures.     

基于委托-代理模型的创新型企业经营者激励机制设计

基于委托—代理模型,结合创新型企业经营者的特性,从物质和精神两个层面上设计一套合理的激励机制,可以有效地促使经营者选择对所有者最有利的行动,进而增加企业利润。具体措施包括:薪酬激励、股权激励、工作设计激励、成就激励、荣誉激励、文化激励、道德和情感激励等。