Linguistic intergroup bias tells ingroup/outgroup orientation of bicultural Asian Americans

Traditional studies of ethnic relations focus on racialization between Whites and Blacks, or ethnic stratification between Whites and people of color. This study aims at broadening conventional studies of interethnic relations to examine racial attitudes among people who have internalized more than one culture – i.e., the biculturals and multiculturals. Social psychological research suggests that bicultural individuals are capable of switching between two cultural meaning frames depending on contextual demands. Bicultural individuals vary in how well they integrate the two cultural identities internalized in them – i.e., their bicultural identity integration levels (BII levels). Their BII levels lead to either culturally congruent or culturally incongruent behaviors among bicultural individuals. The underlying assumption of linguistic intergroup bias indicates that people tend to describe more abstractly observed positive ingroup behaviors and negative outgroup behaviors and describe more concretely observed negative ingroup behaviors and positive outgroup behaviors. In this study, bicultural Asian American participants are hypothesized to use language of either higher or lower abstraction to describe actions of positive and negative valence performed by either ethnic Asians or European Americans depending on the cultural priming they received and their BII levels. The demonstrated pattern of ingroup enhancement and outgroup derogation of the bicultural participants point out the perceived ingroup/outgroup orientation of these biculturals towards their coethnics and people of the mainstream culture. Effects of the cultural priming and impact of BII levels are also discussed.     

Managing the unexpected: Bicultural identity integration during the COVID-19 emergency

Unexpected and sudden emergency situations such as COVID-19 may render ethnic minorities particularly vulnerable to experiencing negative outcomes. Yet, we put forward that Bicultural Identity Integration (BII) – the degree to which bicultural individuals perceive their cultural identities as compatible and overlapping – may represent a resource in times of emergencies, since it may positively influence, through enhancement of psychological well-being, how bicultural individuals respond in terms of distress and coping strategies. Based on this assumption, the present study aimed at examining the relationship between BII and responses to COVID-19. N = 370 bicultural individuals (mean age = 26.83, SD = 8.74) from different cultural backgrounds were recruited online and completed measures of BII, psychological well-being, COVID-19 distress and coping strategies (positive attitudes, avoidance, social support seeking) during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. We tested a model in which BII was the predictor, psychological well-being was the mediator and reactions to the COVID-19 emergency (distress, use of coping) were the outcomes. This model was tested against two alternative models. The proposed model showed a better fit to the data compared to the alternative models. In this model, psychological well-being mediated the relationship between BII (harmony) and coping strategies, except social support seeking. These findings highlight the important role played by BII in emergency situations, as it may indirectly, through enhancement of psychological well-being, contribute to enhance biculturals’ adaptive reactions in terms of distress as well as affect coping strategies during highly stressful events.     

Profiles of Multi-cultural Identity Integration in a Conflictual Context

This study addressed the phenomenon of multiple social identities in a conflictual context. It examined the case of Palestinian-Christians living in Israel, a nation imbued with ethno-religious conflict, a complex combination of three distinct collective identities: national (Palestinian-Arab), ethno-religious (Christian), and civic (Israeli). The current study proposed a conceptual and methodological expansion of the “Bicultural Identity Integration” (BII) model (Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005) as a way to assess different levels of integration between three types of identities (national, ethno-religious, and civic) in a sample of 383 Palestinian Christians with Israeli citizenship. Results revealed that the three integrations of BII (Arab-Christian, Arab-Israeli, Christian-Israeli) are positively predicted by favorable intergroup contact with Jews and Muslims and negatively by discrimination by these groups. Further, Latent Profile Analyses revealed four distinct identity profiles: two (“Pro-Arab” and “Pro-Israel”) were highly conflictual and characterized by both discrimination and negative intergroup contact, and two (“Ambivalent” and “Peaceful”) were characterized by less conflict across pairs of identities. These findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical contribution to the study of multiple social and collective identities in contexts of conflict, and their practical implications for the groups under study.     

Discrimination and multicultural identity configurations: The mediating role of stress

The present research examines perceived discrimination as a predictor of how multicultural individuals negotiate and configure their different cultural identities within the self. We focused on three multicultural identity configurations: having one predominant identity (categorization), compartmentalizing one’s different identities, and integrating one’s identities. Since discrimination is related to intraindividual discordance and is stressful, we examined the mediating role of stress in the associations between discrimination and the identity configurations in 259 multicultural individuals. Mediation analyses revealed that greater discrimination predicted compartmentalization through greater stress, while lower discrimination predicted greater identity integration through lower stress. Categorization was not predicted by discrimination or by stress. Discrimination and stress appear to have damaging and depleting roles that hamper multiculturals’ capacity to reconcile their identities into a cohesive whole.     

Cultural Dis/Continuity in African-American and Ghanaian Mothers’ Voices and Identities

With Cultural Continuity Theory as a framework, this study used quantitative (N?=?204) and qualitative (N?=?63) methods to explore how Ghanaian and African-American mothers communicate their motherhood perceptions and identities. Survey, interview, and focus group data obtained from this investigation suggest cultural discontinuity in the rhetoric the participants use to describe their motherhood experiences and identities. Though this multi-method study is meaningful in that it provides a space for the underrepresented voices of African-American and Ghanaian mothers to be heard, it challenges previously held notions of continuity within African-American and African societies. Based on the findings, this study also considers implications relative to the similarities and differences in African-American and Ghanaian motherhood philosophies, and it offers recommendations for future research.     

Mindreading across cultural boundaries

Two studies were conducted to examine the role of culture in mindreading (i.e., the ability to read the mental states of others). We focused on features of the target (cultural ingroup or outgroup), as well as features of the perceiver (cultural competencies, Mono-Cultural or Cross-Cultural) that might affect mindreading accuracy. Study 1 found no difference in the mindreading accuracy of Caucasian Australians (N = 166) when presented with Caucasian Australian ingroup or Korean outgroup targets. However, exploratory moderation analyses showed participants’ mindreading of outgroup targets was more accurate the more open to experiences they were. Mindreading of outgroup targets was also better, the higher participants’ motivational cultural intelligence. Study 2 examined mindreading among Mono-Culturals and Cross-Culturals (N = 223). We found that Mono-Culturals were less accurate when mindreading outgroup than ingroup targets, but this effect was not observed for Cross-Culturals. Furthermore, cultural grounding was positively associated with mindreading accuracy of in/outgroup targets. The studies provide evidence that openness to other cultures and cross-cultural experiences respectively facilitates mindreading accuracy.     

Complex but integrated: Exploring social and cultural identities of women Third Culture Kids (TCK) and factors predicting life satisfaction

The 21 st century, defined by cultural diversity and global mobility, has triggered an unprecedented increase in multicultural individuals, defined as people who internalised more than one culture. Contrasting evidence related to multiculturalism calls for more explorative research to understand cross-cultural identities. The present study explored social and cultural identities of adult female Third Culture Kids (TCKs) (n = 122), multicultural individuals who live mobile lives, and adjustment factors of a global mindset, social inclusiveness and essentialism to find predictors of life satisfaction. We classified social identity into four we-concepts: we-group, we-category, we-attributive and we-axiological, and cultural identity into three configurations: integration, categorisation and compartmentalisation. Our results suggested that TCK define social identity predominantly based on passport country (we-category) and relationships with family and friends (we-group). We indicated that axiological (value-based) social identification and global mindset buffered essentialism and categorisation known to disturb cross-cultural relationships. There was a general tendency for integrated cultural identity, with cultural configurations of categorisation and compartmentalisation correlating positively with essentialism. Hierarchical regression analysis evidenced that integrated multicultural identity, global mindset, and social inclusiveness were significant positive predictors of life satisfaction for female TCK. These results feed into a better understanding of the TCK configurations of collective identities and highlighted new factors related to TCK well-being.     

Investigating direct and indirect globalization-based acculturation

Cultural globalization affects most people around the world in contemporary, modern societies. The resulting intercultural contact have been examined using the theory of globalization-based acculturation. However, little is known about possible differences and similarities in processes underlying the effects of direct (e.g., through contact with immigrants) and indirect (e.g., engagement with cultural elements through media) forms of new cultural exposure. Drawing on the contact hypothesis, social identity theory, and symbolic threat theory, we examined whether perceived intercultural threat and local and global identities would explain whether both forms of contact result in multicultural acquisition or in ethnic protection. In Study 1 (N = 402), indirect, but not direct, intercultural contact was positively associated with multicultural acquisition; and both types of intercultural contact were negatively linked with ethnic protection. Global identity significantly mediated the association of both direct and indirect intercultural contact with both multicultural acquisition and ethnic protection, whereas perceived cultural threat only significantly mediated the associations of direct intercultural contact with multicultural acquisition and ethnic protection. In Study 2 (N = 424), higher levels of ethnic protection, and lower levels of multicultural acquisition, emerged in the experimental group primed with indirect, versus direct, intercultural contact. Furthermore, intercultural threat was negatively, and global identity positively, associated with multicultural acquisition, while intercultural threat was positively, and global identity negatively, associated with ethnic protection. Results are discussed in relation to similarities and differences across direct and indirect intercultural contact, providing a nuanced understanding of contemporary intercultural contact and globalization-based acculturation among majority populations.     

“You are too ethnic,you are too national”: Dual identity denial and dual identification

Ethnic minorities tend to develop dual identities and therefore can face identity denials from two groups. We examine in two studies the relation between dual identity and experiences of dual identity denial as misgivings or a manifested mistrust of one’s group membership from both majority and minority group members. Based on identity integration and threat literature, identity denial represents a threat to dual identity which means that stronger dual identity denial can be expected to be associated with lower dual identity (a negative association). In contrast, based on identity enactment literature, stronger expression of one’s dual identity can be expected to elicit stronger identity denial (a positive association). These two contrasting hypotheses were examined in two studies (Study 1 = 474; Study 2 = 820) among ethnic minorities in the Netherlands. The results from both studies offer greater support for the identity enactment model and illustrate the complexities associated with having a dual identity.     

Consequences of Turkish return migration from Western Europe

We studied the consequences of Turkish return migration in the reconstruction of ‘migrant’ identities into ‘almanci’ identities (literally: German-like; a pejorative term denoting Turkish returnees with a German-like identity) using semi-structured, oral interviews among 48 informants. The study uses a qualitative approach and inductive content analysis to get insight into the factors influencing (re) adaptation of Turkish return migrants. On the basis of informants' self-reports, we found that perceived discrimination, cultural distance with mainstream Turks and children-related issues experienced after return emerged as major themes in the returnee's narratives. The research revealed that re-adaptation difficulties varied substantially across generations and the socioeconomic status of the informants. The migration experiences and the acculturation orientations of the migrants in the countries of immigration played essential roles for a successful re-adaptation period. The results are discussed within the framework of two major models, Berry's acculturation model and Sussman's cultural identity model.     

One world, One dream? Intergroup consequences of the 2008 Beijing Olympics

Despite deliberate efforts to promote the ideal of “One world, One dream,” the 2008 Beijing Olympics appears to have exaggerated Mainland Chinese’ perception of Chinese and Western cultural differences and increased low ingroup identifiers’ ingroup favoring emotions and perceptions. In Study 1, we measured Beijing Chinese's perceptions of Chinese and Western values before and after the Olympics. The results showed that, after the Olympics, encountering the Beijing Olympic icon increased perceived value differences between Western and Chinese cultures. Study 2 showed that in Mainland China, individuals who identified strongly with Chinese culture favored Chinese (vs. American) commercial brands more both at the beginning and toward the end of the Olympics. Moreover, although individuals with low levels of Chinese cultural identification did not display significant ingroup favoritism at the beginning of the Olympics, they did so toward the end of the Games. Together, the results suggest that the Olympics had widened the cultural divide between China and the Western world.     

No place to call home: Cultural homelessness, self-esteem and cross-cultural identities

This study examined relations between a cross-cultural geographically mobile childhood and adulthood cultural homelessness, attachment to cross-cultural identities, and self esteem. Cross-cultural identities are loosely defined identities (e.g., third culture kids, military brats, missionary kids) that describe some individuals’ childhood cross-cultural experience. The 475 participants spent at least two years before age 18 in a country different from their parents’ home culture, then returned to the latter. They completed an online survey which included general demographic information regarding cross-cultural experiences in childhood, as well as the Cultural Homelessness Criteria, the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, and items that evaluated the strength of affirmation, belonging, and commitment to a self-labeled cross-cultural identity. Cultural homelessness was related to lower self esteem scores; higher affirmation, belonging and commitment to any cross-cultural identity was related to higher self esteem and lower cultural homelessness. Furthermore, such affirmation, belonging, and commitment buffered the cultural homelessness-self esteem association, whereas just having a cross-cultural identity did not.     

Investigating Identity: Gender,Overseas Experience,and Japanese Youth

Identity is prominent in academia, despite it being difficult to define and measure due to its dynamic and multifaceted nature. In Japan, awareness of the make-up of Japanese youth is increasingly crucial as Japan becomes a more internationalized and ageing society. This paper examines, by identity mapping and discriminant analysis, the cultural identities of 94 Japanese youth. While strong Global identities separated the respondents with from without overseas experience, ties to National identities and Relationships were found respectively for males and females. This paper suggests that regarding the study of cultural identities, gender does matter – at least in Japan.     

Exploring religiosity and attitudes towards Christians and non-believers among recent Muslim refugees to Finland

This study is among the first to investigate the religiosity patterns, identity motives and attitudes towards Christians and non-believers among recent Muslim refugees in Finland (N = 128). There are two novelties in this study. First, it applies the religious orientation framework to study religious identities among Muslim refugees in Europe. Second, it combines a variable- and person-centred approach to study religiosity in the context of intergroup relations. Using the variable-centred approach with a multiple mediation analysis, we found that refugees’ extrinsic religiosity was associated with more positive attitudes towards Christians. Neither intrinsic religiosity nor participants’ religious identity motives were associated with out-group attitudes. Using the person-centred approach with a Two-Step cluster analysis, we showed that individuals with higher levels of intrinsic as compared to extrinsic religiosity and those with pronounced religious identity motives were more biased towards non-believers than towards Christians. Attitudes towards Christians and non-believers were similarly positive in a group characterised by equal levels of intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity. We discuss these findings in light of the role of religiosity in understanding Muslim refugees’ attitudes towards receiving societies.     

Biculturalism as a double-edged sword: The perspectives of Mexican American emerging adults

Cultural and ethnic identity research largely highlights the adaptiveness of biculturalism among Latino youth in the United States. Less is known about how Latino youth themselves define and experience biculturalism, the cultural identity content that they deem relevant, and how heritage and host identities intersect. Using an inductive approach, this study examines the salience, valence, and meaning of biculturalism among Latino youth living in a multicultural U.S. city. Twenty-six Mexican American emerging adults (M_age = 22.35 years) participated in semi-structured interviews and constructed cultural identity maps focusing on their experiences of biculturalism. Qualitative analysis reveals that participants overwhelmingly deem biculturalism to be positive and explores the duality (i.e.: opposition or contrast) that lies beneath that positivity. Participants emphasized individual-level advantages of biculturalism, namely, that their Mexican heritage provides identity rootedness and enables expanded career and educational opportunities. The bicultural challenges that participants discussed were overwhelmingly relational: familial cultural gaps due to dissonant values and critical gazes from others due to inadequate cultural performances. By revealing that and why biculturalism is mostly positive in the eyes of participants, and exploring the duality that lies beneath that positivity, this study draws attention to the complexity of biculturalism that can be obscured by exclusive reliance on quantitative self-report measures.     

Together we stand? Belonging motive moderates the effect of national ingroup salience on attitudes towards ethnic minorities

Common ingroup categorization reduces outgroup prejudice. This link is moderated by distinctiveness motives (i.e., individuals perceiving this identity as too inclusive). Yet, Optimal Distinctiveness Theory states that both distinctiveness and belonging motives shape intergroup attitudes. For the first time we tested the hypothesis that belonging and distinctiveness motives jointly moderate common ingroup categorization effects. Using a flag-priming paradigm, two studies showed that, when national ingroup identity was salient, only belonging motives predicted positive attitudes towards outgroups (Study1: Syrians in Turkey, N = 184; Study 2: Maghrebis in France N = 151). This was corroborated by sensitivity analyses on aggregated data (N = 335). These results suggest that national identification may lead to positive outgroup attitudes for individuals who derive belonging from it.     

Acculturation in a postcolonial context: Language,identity, cultural adaptation,and academic achievement of Macao students in Mainland China

The mainstream acculturation research focuses on international students and immigrants’ settlement in a new cultural environment, but little is known about the adaptation process of people from postcolonial areas relocating to their home country. Drawing from research on acculturation and postcolonial studies, this research examined the importance of language and social identity of Macao Chinese (N = 102; 50 males, Mage = 20.1) transitioning to universities in Mainland China. The results of path analysis showed that Chinese national identity and perceived Mandarin language proficiency were positively associated with each other, but they were linked to cultural adaptation through different paths. Perceived language proficiency was directly linked to social, academic, and psychological adaptation, whereas Chinese identity was indirectly associated with social and academic adaptation through acculturation to the Mainland Chinese culture. Moreover, academic adaptation was, in turn, associated with academic achievement (i.e., GPAs). The present study extends acculturation research to a postcolonial context, highlighting that national identity and language proficiency are important factors for successful cultural adaptation to the homeland. The theoretical and practical implications regarding intra-cultural adaptation barriers andprocesses in postcolonial contexts were discussed.     

Voluntary and involuntary immigrants and adolescents’ endorsement of multiculturalism

This research examined whether the way in which migrants are defined has implications for majority group adolescents’ evaluation of maintenance of the heritage culture. Using an experimental questionnaire design, the findings demonstrate that when migrants are considered to have left their country on a voluntary basis, endorsement of cultural maintenance is lower than when migration is perceived to be involuntary. This was found to be the case when voluntary immigrants were contrasted with immigrants that have been recruited as labor migrants by the host society (Study 1, N = 843), and when voluntary immigrants were contrasted with immigrants that are forced to leave their country of origin (Study 2, N = 108). Furthermore, Study 2 found similar effects for emigrants. In both studies, national identification was negatively related to support for cultural maintenance. In addition, higher identifiers were more strongly in favor of allowing involuntary emigrants to maintain their own culture than lower identifiers. The implications of this research are discussed.     

How intergroup contact and communication about group differences predict collective action intentions among advantaged groups

Though greater intergroup contact has been shown to predict greater support for social change among advantaged group members, little is known about what occurs during the contact that may encourage members of advantaged groups to become willing to engage in collective action in solidarity with the disadvantaged. We argue that intergroup contact with disadvantaged group members may motivate advantaged group members’ willingness to engage in collective action through the mediating pathway of communication about group differences in power during contact. Two studies tested this proposition by examining how advantaged group members communicate about group differences with disadvantaged groups during contact in two distinct national contexts: White Americans in contact with Black Americans in the U.S. (Study 1) and Turks in contact with Kurds in Turkey (Study 2). In addition, Study 2 extended the research by specifying that it is communication about group differences in power—not communication about group differences in culture—that mediates the relation between advantaged group members’ contact with the disadvantaged and their willingness to engage in collective action in solidarity with the disadvantaged. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research on intergroup contact, along with highlighting the importance of communicating about power differences across group lines.