Student engagement as a mediator of the effects of socio-economic status on academic performance among secondary school students in Australia

In this article, we contribute to understanding of the mechanisms through which students’ socio-economic family background can translate into academic performance by focusing on the concept of student engagement. Drawing on theoretical perspectives from disciplines across the social sciences, and a major nationally representative dataset from Australia, which links survey responses with administrative records on school performance, we conduct a series of multiple regression models to investigate the mediating role of student engagement on the relationship between students’ socio-economic status (SES) and academic achievement. We find that, first, low-SES students show lower levels of engagement than other students, particularly in terms of behavioural and cognitive aspects; they also have lower achievement levels as measured by standardised test scores. We further find that lower engagement is associated with lower achievement levels, and that the effects of SES on achievement are partially mediated through student engagement. Although there are clearly other mechanisms in place that operate at the same time, it is important to focus on student engagement since it can be directly influenced by teachers and school leaders, as well as curriculum choices and school resources. This makes it a ripe target for government policies aimed at improving educational outcomes for students from low-SES families, compared with approaches targeting the influences of family environment or peer groups.     

Role of linguistic and sociocultural diversity in reading literacy achievement: a multilevel approach

This study examined how linguistic and sociocultural diversity have an impact on the reading literacy outcomes of a representative sample of 3,549 first‐language (L1) and 208 second‐language (L2) fourth‐grade students in the Netherlands. A multilevel modelling analysis was conducted using Progress in International Reading Literacy Study 2006 data to explore to what extent linguistic background, socioeconomic status (SES), home and school literacy environment and reading attitudes explain differences in reading literacy achievement. Significant differences between L1 and L2 students were found with regard to reading literacy achievement, SES and the home and school literacy environment. Multilevel modelling analysis showed 34.7% of explained variance in reading literacy achievement, whereby the student level accounts for most of the explained variance. In the final model, linguistic background, SES, home and school literacy environment and reading attitudes were found to have a significant effect on reading literacy achievement.     

Oral English language proficiency and reading mastery: The role of home language and school supports

The analysis of 21,409 participants of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten cohort focused on home and school factors sought to understand the level of reading mastery that children experienced throughout elementary school and Grade 8 by relating home language use, timing of oral English language proficiency, and the provision of school-based English language learner services to reading mastery. Results confirm that non-English language use at home is associated with a decreased reading mastery at higher levels of proficiency in Grades 1 and 3, and is reduced to nonsignificance in Grades 5 and 8 with the inclusion of teacher and school factors. Also, the negative association between timing of oral English language proficiency and reading mastery is partially explained by teacher and school factors, particularly children's receipt of English language learner services. The findings provide support for policies that provide language services for language minority children and families during the transition to school and through the elementary school years.     

Morpho-lexical development in language impaired and typically developing Hebrew-speaking children from two SES backgrounds

The study investigated the impact of language impairment and environmental deprivation on Hebrew morpho-lexical development across the school years. Participants were 659 grade school and middle school Hebrew-speaking students—typically developing and language impaired, from mid-high and from low socio-economic status (SES). They were all administered three derivational morphology tasks designed to elicit verbs, adjectives and derived abstract nouns. Each response was scored in three different ways: as a whole word, and according to its base (root or stem) and affixal (pattern or suffix) morphemes. Findings revealed three systematic hierarchies. First, the typically developing mid-high SES group always scored the highest, the language impaired low SES group always scored the lowest, while the typically developing low SES and the language impaired mid-high SES groups lay in-between. Second, verbs were the easiest category across all study groups, whilst adjectives and derived abstract nouns proved to be more affected by population type. Third, affixal morpheme always scored lower than base morpheme, with persistent gaps between the typically developing mid-high SES group and all other groups. Altogether, results show that language development is impeded extensively by both language impairment and SES factors, suggesting that in the long run, innate and environmental factors may have similar implications on morpho-lexical development.     

English vocabulary trajectories of students whose parents speak a language other than English: steep trajectories and sharp summer setback

In this study, I used individual growth modeling methods to examine the English word-learning trajectories of adolescent students (N = 278) whose parents speak English at home (n = 210) and those whose parents speak a language other than English (n = 68). Sixth- (n = 130) and seventh-grade (n = 148) students attending an urban middle school took part in the study, with each student contributing up to four occasions of vocabulary-achievement data across three school years. I used the group reading and diagnostic evaluation (GRADE), a 40-item, group-administered assessment to measure vocabulary achievement. Students also provided information about the amount of time they spent reading independently during the summer and during the school year. Principal predictor variables included days between assessments, student home language, student free and reduced lunch status, time spent independent reading, and a dummy variable for the number of summers experienced between testing periods. On average, middle-school students experienced a loss of vocabulary over the summer, however students who spoke a language other than English at home had more pronounced summer setback and steeper learning trajectories, even when controlling for well-known predictors of vocabulary like independent reading and predictors of summer loss like free and reduced lunch status. These findings corroborate research showing low-income students experience summer loss, but suggest that in urban schools serving mostly low-income students, home-language status may be a stronger predictor of summer loss than socio-economic status or reading amount.     

The Role of Students’ Home Language in Science Achievement: A multilevel approach

The present study aimed to identify the role of both student- and school-level characteristics in primary school students’ achievement in the science curriculum. As societies become more culturally and linguistically diverse, many students enter the classroom with a home language that is different from the language of instruction used at school. This study takes into account both the home language and literacy in the language of instruction in relation to student achievement in science subjects. Questionnaires, reading performance tests, and science achievement tests were administered to 1,761 fourth-grade students from 67 schools across Flanders (Belgium). Multilevel hierarchical regression analyses show that the home language and literacy in the language of instruction play an important role in science achievement at the student level, next to gender and socioeconomic status. Students with a home language that is different from the language of instruction experience difficulties with science subjects. Moreover, the higher students’ performance on reading comprehension and self-assessed proficiency in the language of instruction, the higher their score on science achievement tests. At the school level, a school's teachability expectations are one of the key factors related to students’ science achievement. Limitations of this study and future directions for research are discussed.     

Bilingual school psychologists' assessment practices with English language learners

This study explored bilingual school psychologists' assessment practices with students identified as English language learners (ELL). One thousand bilingual National Association of School Psychologist members were recruited nationwide, and 276 participated. Among those conducting language proficiency assessments of ELLs, many (58%) use comprehensive methods across four domains of language use. Participants generally use multifaceted assessment approaches and most (84.1%) assess acculturation as part of the assessment battery. Although few use interpreters, those who did reported a mix of best practices and discouraged practices in their use. Multiple regression results showed that engaging in continuing education activities about assessing ELLs predicted “best practices” when assessing language proficiency, selecting and using measures with ELLs with whom they share a second language, and using interpreters. A relationship was also found between engaging in applied preservice training with bilingual supervision and best practice behaviors assessing student acculturation. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Skills, capabilities and inequalities at school entry in a disadvantaged community

Socioeconomic inequalities in children’s skills and capabilities begin early in life and can have detrimental effects on future success in school. The present study examined the relationships between school readiness and socioeconomic (SES) inequalities using teacher reports of the Short Early Development Instrument (Janus et al. 2005) in a disadvantaged urban community of Ireland. It specifically examined differences in skills within a low SES community in order to investigate the role of relative disadvantage on children’s development. SES differences across multiple domains of school readiness were examined using Monte Carlo permutation tests and seemingly unrelated regression models. The false discovery rate (Benjamini and Hochberg 1995) was used to control for multiple hypothesis testing. The results indicated that being from a relatively higher SES background does not act as a protective factor for children residing in a disadvantaged community for the majority of school readiness domains. This implies that the neighbourhood may play a role in children’s school readiness skills. These results suggest that school readiness interventions should target all children living in disadvantaged communities as each child may be at risk of poor school readiness.     

Relations between early majority language and socioemotional development in children with different language backgrounds

This study explored whether the directionality of the relation between majority language and various facets of socioemotional development (three to 5 years old) differs between children with different language backgrounds. 12,951 children (49% girls; 85% White, 6% Pakistani and Bangladeshi, 3% Black, 3% Mix, 2% Indian) from the British Millennium Cohort Study (2001–2006) were included in two-time-point cross-lagged analyses. Models controlling for important covariates found a bidirectional association for monolinguals (βs = .05, −.07, −.04), a unidirectional effect of majority language on socioemotional difficulties for dual language learners (DLLs) speaking English and minority language(s) at home (β = .14), and a unidirectional effect of socioemotional strength on majority language for DLLs speaking only minority language(s) at home (β = −.17).     

Dual language development of Latino children: Effect of instructional program type and the home and school language environment

Latino dual language children typically enter school with a wide range of proficiencies in Spanish and English, many with low proficiency in both languages, yet do make gains in one or both languages during their first school years. Dual language development is associated with how language is used at home and school, as well as the type of instructional program children receive at school. The present study investigates how changes in both Spanish and English proficiencies of Latino, second-generation immigrant children (n = 163) from kindergarten to second grade relate to instructional program type as well as language use at home and school. A series of MANCOVAs demonstrated significant dual language gains in children who were in bilingual classrooms and schools where Spanish was used among the teachers, students, and staff. Furthermore, only in classrooms where both Spanish and English were used did children reach age-appropriate levels of academic proficiency in both languages. Home language use was also significantly associated with dual language gains as was maternal Spanish vocabulary knowledge before controlling for maternal education. Educational implications and potential benefits associated with bilingualism are discussed.     

Reading comprehension of immigrant students in Germany: research evidence on determinants and target points for intervention

International studies, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), have shown that, in most participating countries, students who do not typically speak the test language at home reach lower levels of reading comprehension than students using the test language at home (Stanat & Christensen, 2006). Results from PISA indicate that Germany is among the countries with the most pronounced differences in reading comprehension between immigrant students and students from native families. The present article summarizes these findings and shows that the reading achievement gap persists even when the socioeconomic and educational background of students?? families are controlled. Furthermore, although controlling for background factors reduces the effect of the language spoken at home on reading, it continues to be substantial. Using these findings as a starting point, the article addresses the question of what should be done to close this gap. It summarizes research findings indicating that oral proficiency presents an important determinant of reading comprehension in a second language. This suggests that effective general approaches to second-language teaching are needed to promote reading literacy in a L2. The article closes with a discussion of the available evidence on the effectiveness of such approaches and outlines the need for further research.     

Social Support and Socioeconomic Status Predict Secondary Students' Grades and Educational Plans Indifferently Across Immigrant Group and Gender

Social support and socioeconomic status (SES) have received considerable attention in explaining academic achievement and the achievement gap between students with ethic majority and immigrant background, and between boys and girls. Using a Structural Equation Modeling approach we examine (1) if there exist a gap in school achievements between these groups, (2) whether social support and SES is associated with achievements across these groups, (3) whether social support is associated with achievements after controlling for SES, and (4) whether achievement gaps are explained by group differences in social support and SES. Self-reported cross-sectional survey and register data from 8,574 10th graders in Norway was employed. Although we found group differences in achievements, and direct associations with social support and SES, we found no group differences in these associations. Controlling for SES and other sources of social support, teachers' support remained a significant positive influence on students' school outcomes.     

Student and school SES,gender, strategy use,and achievement

A multilevel mediated regression model was fit to Programme for International Student Assessment achievement, strategy use, gender, and family‐ and school‐level socioeconomic status (SES). Two metacognitive strategies (i.e., understanding and summarizing) and one learning strategy (i.e., control strategies) were found to relate significantly and positively to achievement. These strategies were used more by females and students attending higher SES schools. In contrast, males and students attending lower SES schools tended to use a greater number of learning strategies that did not relate to achievement, including memorization and elaboration. In addition, the strategies that did not relate to achievement were used more frequently by students from higher SES families. The findings suggest that schools, as opposed to families, may be the primary vehicle for developing effective strategy use practices for students and thus, targeted interventions may be particularly useful for male students attending low SES schools.     

Perceived Socio‐Economic Status and Social Inclusion in School: Interactions of Disadvantages

This paper is based on a study of 7,372 students in grades 5–10 (aged 11–16) in a representative sample of Norwegian compulsory schools. The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between students' reported socio‐economic status (SES) and their perceived social inclusion (SI) in school in the whole sample. We also considered separately a sub‐sample of students with additional social background disadvantages, i.e. children taken into public care and placed in a foster home or children's home, those whose parents have alcohol‐ or drug‐related problems, or students who are refugees and belonging to ethnic minority groups. For the sample as a whole, results showed a weak but significant relationship between SES and SI. In the disadvantaged sample, this relationship is stronger. These results suggest that additional social background disadvantages intensify the effects of SES on perceived social inclusion in school.     

Inequality and the home learning environment: Predictions about seven‐year‐olds’ language and literacy

Using a UK representative sample from the Millennium Cohort Study, the present study examined the unique and cumulative contribution of children's characteristics and attitudes to school, home learning environment and family's socio‐economic background to children's language and literacy at the end of Key Stage 1 (age seven‐years‐old). Consistently with previous studies, the findings showed that family's socio‐economic background made a substantive contribution to teacher‐rated language and literacy. Moreover, children's characteristics and attitudes to school as well as certain aspects of the home learning environment explained a significant amount of variance in language and literacy. Homework support and book reading, however, were not found to associate with children's language and literacy outcomes, despite a high percentage of parents being involved with home learning support routinely. These findings are likely to contribute to debates regarding the role of home learning in reducing underachievement, drawing important implications for family policy.     

Relations between socio‐cultural factors,the home literacy environment and children's literacy development in the first years of primary education

This paper deals with the relation between children's home literacy environments (HLE) and their literacy development in the first phase of primary school. On the basis of a broad conceptualisation of the HLE, we identified three home literacy profiles (rich, child‐directed and poor HLE). Firstly, we related these profiles to socio‐cultural factors (more specifically, ethnicity and socio‐economic status [SES]). We found an association between the HLE and ethnicity/SES, indicating that (Dutch) majority children and children from high SES families had, in general, the most stimulating HLEs. On the other hand, we observed considerable variability in HLEs within ethnic minority and low SES groups. Subsequently, we related the HLE profiles to literacy outcomes in kindergarten, first and second grade. We found that, after controlling for relevant background characteristics, the HLE had an effect on children's vocabulary scores in first grade, and their general reading comprehension both in first and second grade.     

Capturing a nuanced picture of classroom cultural diversity climate: Multigroup and multilevel analyses among secondary school students in Germany

As cultural diversity is increasing around the globe, a more nuanced understanding of the cultural diversity climate in classroom settings is needed, including how its different aspects relate to student outcomes. We developed the Classroom Cultural Diversity Climate Scale (CCDCS), integrating theory and research from social psychology and multicultural education and including novel facets like polyculturalism, which has not been studied in the school context before. We then studied associations with intergroup relations, socio-emotional adjustment, and school achievement among students of immigrant and non-immigrant background at the individual and classroom levels. The scale includes six subscales in the two broad dimensions of equality and inclusion: contact and cooperation, (un)equal treatment, and color-evasion, and cultural pluralism: heritage and intercultural learning, critical consciousness, and polyculturalism. Using data from 1,335 secondary school students in Germany (M_age = 14.7; 51% male; 51% immigrant background), the scale demonstrated measurement invariance by immigrant background, gender, and school track, and reliability at individual and classroom levels. A more positive diversity climate, with better intercultural relations (equality and inclusion) and more opportunities to learn about cultural diversity (cultural pluralism), was associated with more positive student outcomes. Interestingly, polyculturalism was not associated with negative effects observed for other facets of cultural pluralism. Relations for different climate aspects also varied by outcome and students’ immigrant background. This underscores the importance of a nuanced perspective when evaluating different approaches to cultural diversity in context.     

Student,home, and school socio-demographic factors: links to school,home, and community arts participation

This study explored the role of student (e.g., age, language background, gender), home (e.g., parent/caregiver education), and school (e.g., school type, size) socio-demographic factors in students’ school (e.g., in-school arts tuition, arts engagement), home (e.g., parent/caregiver–child arts interaction), and community (e.g., arts attendance, arts tuition) arts participation. The sample comprised 1172 elementary and secondary school students from 15 schools. Findings revealed that student and home socio-demographic factors were the most salient in predicting arts participation across school, home, and community contexts. Age, gender, and prior achievement were the key student socio-demographic factors, while parent/caregiver education and occupation were also associated with students’ arts participation. Implications for practice and intervention pertinent to young people’s arts participation are discussed.     

Immigrant students in Denmark: why are they disadvantaged in civic learning?

Abstract

Although native family students often learn more than immigrant family students in school (e.g. civics), scholars have not systematically demonstrated the mechanisms through which native family students outperform immigrant family students. The Opportunity-Propensity framework guides this study. We examine the link between students’ immigrant status and civic knowledge, with antecedent factors (socioeconomic status [SES] and language spoken at home), opportunity factors (civic learning at school, civic participation at school, and political discussion), and propensity factors (perceived open classroom climate and student-teacher relationship). Two-level path analysis of the responses to the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS) 2016 by 6254 eighth graders in Denmark showed that the civic knowledge of native family students exceeded that of immigrant family students, mediated by their own and schoolmates’ higher family SES. Meanwhile, immigrant family students had more political discussions, which are linked to better civic knowledge.     

Student victimization by educational staff in Israel

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the relationships between physical, emotional, and sexual victimization of school students by educational staff with a number of variables describing the student (gender, age, and relationship with teachers) and the school (the socioeconomic status (SES) of the students' families and school's neighborhood, school level, and ethnic affiliation). METHOD: The study is based on a nationally representative sample of 17,465 students in grades 4-11 in 319 schools across Israel, who completed questionnaires during class. In addition, data were obtained on SES of students' families and the school's neighborhood. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to examine the relationships. RESULTS: Almost a third of the students reported being emotionally maltreated by school staff, and almost a quarter of primary and junior high students and a fifth of high school students were physically victimized by school staff. Almost 8% of secondary school students reported being sexually maltreated by school staff. The most vulnerable students were boys, Arab children, and children in schools in low SES neighborhoods. CONCLUSION: The study shows that students in Israel are exposed to high levels of maltreatment by educational staff, but not all students are equally likely to be victimized by school staff.