可说的与不可说的--冯友兰与维特根斯坦美学的一种比较研究

冯友兰与维特根斯坦都对“可说的”和“不可说的”之间的区分以及这种区分的哲学意义有清楚的认识,而且尤其关注“不可说的”。然而,学术界似乎更重视他们用“正的方法”说出来的“可说的”,而不太关注他们用“负的方法”说出来或没有说出来的“不可说的”,从而掩盖了他们的美学思想的丰富性和深刻性。本文采用一种比较研究的形式,力图突出维特根斯坦和冯友兰用“负的方法”暗示的“不可说的”美学思想的重要意义。     

维特根斯坦的“家族相似说”

\"家族相似说\"是维特根斯坦后期提出的一种影响深远的比喻性说法,被后人视为维特根斯坦反本质主义的纲领之一。\"家族相似说\"认为不存在语言的本质,各种语言游戏之间的\"家族相似\"是一种错综复杂、重叠交错的\"相似性\"关联,应通过\"不要想,而要看\"的方式研究语言的个别性、多样性。维特根斯坦的\"家族相似说\"对西方哲学的发展产生了重要而深远的影响。     

Can a culture of error be really developed in the classroom without teaching students to distinguish between errors and anomalies?

It is expected that children increasingly learn to identify errors throughout their schooling process and even before it. As a further step, however, some scholars have suggested how a culture of error should be implemented in the classroom for the student to be able not only to locate errors but also, and above all, to learn from them. Yet the various proposals aimed at generating a culture of error in the classroom keep regarding error as all those responses and reactions that are not considered as true or correct in each specific case, thereby not realizing that many of these alleged errors are really anomalies with very different characteristics and consequences despite their seeming resemblance. In this paper, I rely on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s On Certainty to clarify the difference between errors and anomalies. Subsequently, I provide guidelines that may be adapted by each teacher to her students’ needs and development level in order to foster a culture of error that begins by distinguishing error from anomaly, which constitutes a practical as well as conceptual necessity particularly in Child and Primary Education, as it is just then when anomalies most frequently arise in the form of questions and answers.     

从康德图型说看知识的确定性

康德《纯粹理性批判》一书试图通过对“先天综合判断”可能性的论证,为人类的知识大厦打下坚实的基础。其主要思路就是建立理性和经验之间的联系,弥补经验论和唯理论的缺陷。连结二者的中介,康德最后归结到“图型”。不过图型说也没有解决这个问题,根本原因是康德仍然在追求一种知识的永恒的、行而上学的确定性。而知识的这种绝对的确定性是不存在的,其确定性是一种动态的确定性,这种确定性只能在主体与客体的关系中获得理解。     

知识确定性转化的辩证教学策略

个体知识不确定性和群体知识确定性需求的矛盾,要求高校教授学生确定性知识的同时还要引导学生具有思辨和认知的能力。为实现这一教学目标,从知识不确定性内容和表象的分析入手,总结出知识确定性转化过程的4个步骤,即认知方式转化、知识元件转化、逻辑推理转化和知识网络转化,并提出了高校教学的5种策略,即启发和概括、梳理和强化、讨论和辨析、验证和去伪以及协同和统一。并运用5个策略讨论缓解高校教学中需要克服的知识确定性转化中知识确定性与知识进步、知识确定性与存在差异性、学术自由与组织趋同3个方面矛盾的方法。     

洛克论知识的确实性

知识的确实性问题是洛克知识论的核心问题。他从经济主义原则出发,认为认识的心理行为和知识的语言表达两方面共同制约着知识的确实性。知识确实性的本初含义是不证自明性和普遍必然性,但本质上是实在性,因而我们在主体认知范围内可获得不同等级的确实性知识：直觉的知识、解证的知识和经验的知识。洛克的知识确实性思想深刻地影响了近现代西方对于确实性的追求。     

知识变迁视野下的教师角色转换

受不同知识观的支配,教师扮演着不同的角色。确定性知识观认为知识是确定的,教育教学过程就是确定性知识的传授过程,学生的学习则是对确定性知识的理解、接受和掌握,教师的职责在于传授这种确定的知识,以维持现有秩序。不确定性知识观认为知识不确定,教育教学过程是不确定知识的获得过程,学生的学习在于促进自己的能力提高与心理发展,教师的职责是在帮助学生获得不确定性知识的同时,自己获得不确定性知识,从而推动并引领教育与社会的发展。在知识观从确定性到不确定性转变的教育现实中,迫切需要教师实现角色的转变。     

知识的不确定性及对教师专业发展的相关启示——以数学知识的不确定性为例

知识的不确定性是指知识的发展性、知识的主观性与知识的开放性。因此,知识是确定性与不确定性的统一。理解此,对于教师自身的专业发展具有较大的启示:第一,教师需做反思型学习者。第二,教师不仅要做知识的使用者,也要做知识的生产者。     

科学假说的信念成分及其对科学知识确定性的影响

科学假说作为对问题的一种试探性和推测性的断言,有信念的成分。由于人们对世界的无知和认识必须有一个确信的支点,使科学研究只能采取并围绕具有信念性的假说形式展开。正是科学假说的猜测性,使得从其出发经过推理论证所获得的科学知识具有更大的不确定性。科学家的工作,就是在经验事实材料与构想的理论假说之间来回穿梭,并试图借助于理性逻辑建立二之间的必然联系。但是这种必然性是不存在的,科学家正是在揭示那虚假的必然性中推动科学发展的。     

Tacit Teaching

This essay reflects upon certain aspects of Wittgenstein's own practices as a teacher. Doing philosophy always took priority for Wittgenstein, whether this was in oral or written form: it was important to show the deep puzzles in our language (and our culture and thinking) as a step toward dissolving them. In this respect, one can teach only as a guide; it is a matter of showing more than saying.
Wittgenstein's approach suggests a model that I will call tacit teaching . Tacit teaching refers to the many forms of informal instruction—some intentional, some unintentional, and some difficult to categorize simply as one or the other—by which skills, capacities, and dispositions are passed along within a domain of practice. Wittgenstein repeatedly uses the language of signposts, of wandering through a city, of being lost and finding one's way, of needing a guide, of learning how to go on by one's self, to refer to the complex web of knowledge and understanding that allows successful autonomous practice in some discipline: most pertinently, in the context of Wittgenstein's own teaching and writing, the discipline of doing philosophy, but with clear reference to teaching and learning in other complex and ill-structured domains as well.     

Tacit Teaching

This essay reflects upon certain aspects of Wittgenstein's own practices as a teacher. Doing philosophy always took priority for Wittgenstein, whether this was in oral or written form: it was important to show the deep puzzles in our language (and our culture and thinking) as a step toward dissolving them. In this respect, one can teach only as a guide; it is a matter of showing more than saying.

Wittgenstein's approach suggests a model that I will call tacit teaching. Tacit teaching refers to the many forms of informal instruction—some intentional, some unintentional, and some difficult to categorize simply as one or the other—by which skills, capacities, and dispositions are passed along within a domain of practice. Wittgenstein repeatedly uses the language of signposts, of wandering through a city, of being lost and finding one's way, of needing a guide, of learning how to go on by one's self, to refer to the complex web of knowledge and understanding that allows successful autonomous practice in some discipline: most pertinently, in the context of Wittgenstein's own teaching and writing, the discipline of doing philosophy, but with clear reference to teaching and learning in other complex and ill‐structured domains as well.     

洛克知识论的内在逻辑

洛克知识论贯穿知识确实性主线。洛克以观念和语词为起点 ,从认知的心理行为和逻辑的语言表达两个层面展开了知识在不同逻辑层次发展的一种经验主义内涵逻辑的知识论体系 ;以人的认知行为和道德行为为起点 ,从知识和人生两个层面探讨了知识在不同领域表现的一种经验主义外延逻辑的知识论体系 ,试图为科学的基础作出形而上学的解决 ,对近现代哲学产生了深远的影响。     

Negotiating the World: Some philosophical considerations on dealing with differential academic language proficiency in schools

Differential academic language proficiency is an issue of major educational concern, bearing on problems varying from pupil performance, to social prospects, and citizenship. In this paper we develop a conception of the language-acquiring subject, and we discuss the consequences for understanding differential language proficiency in schools. Starting from Wittgenstein's meaning-as-use theory we show that learning a language requires an activity that relates the subject both to the community of language users, and to the things language is about. In opposition to Luntley, we contend that this does not mean that linguistic development involves linguistic adjustment to the world 'as it is'. It is argued that, in as far as linguistic development involves a process of adjustment, this concerns conceptions about the world as it is presupposed to be—a 'world' that is subjected to doubt and revision time and again. With respect to dealing with differential academic language proficiency, this approach to linguistic development suggests bringing pupils into situations which require active participation in processes of 'negotiating meaning', including negotiating the prevailing presuppositions about what the world is like. This also puts novices in a different position—less assimilatory—recognising their co-constructive potencies at a more fundamental level.     

Education and philosophy in R. F. Holland’s Against Empiricism: A reassessment

In his 1980 book Against Empiricism: On Education, Epistemology and Value, British philosopher R. F. Holland (1923–2013) exposes the inadequacies of a philosophy of education originating from an empiricist worldview. By following Plato’s view that the issue of what qualifies as knowledge has to be understood with reference to whether it is teachable, Holland’s critique of empiricism highlights the social and communal dimensions of education. The primary objective of this paper is to offer a reassessment of Holland’s thoughts on education and value. To do so, I first discuss Holland’s use of Plato’s ideas in his article ‘Epistemology and Education’ to demonstrate that Holland’s position can offer us a fruitful way to diagnose common, prevalent educational practices. I then turn to look at Holland’s views on value and morality. To illustrate how his thoughts on education can be seen to be relevant to the contemporary world, I explore and criticize some implicit presuppositions on knowledge in the 2011 box-office hit Limitless. The conceptual dimension of Holland’s take on education is then examined alongside with some recent trends in epistemology and philosophy of education.     

负面知识：职校课程设计中不可或缺的知识要件

从负面知识的内涵入手,阐述了负面知识的工作机理,表明负面知识在增强确定性,提高有效性和提高反思度方面的重要作用,最后在负面知识的传授上,提出了相关的策略设计。     

Negotiating the World: Some philosophical considerations on dealing with differential academic language proficiency in schools

Differential academic language proficiency is an issue of major educational concern, bearing on problems varying from pupil performance, to social prospects, and citizenship. In this paper we develop a conception of the language‐acquiring subject, and we discuss the consequences for understanding differential language proficiency in schools. Starting from Wittgenstein's meaning‐as‐use theory we show that learning a language requires an activity that relates the subject both to the community of language users, and to the things language is about. In opposition to Luntley, we contend that this does not mean that linguistic development involves linguistic adjustment to the world ‘as it is’. It is argued that, in as far as linguistic development involves a process of adjustment, this concerns conceptions about the world as it is presupposed to be—a ‘world’ that is subjected to doubt and revision time and again. With respect to dealing with differential academic language proficiency, this approach to linguistic development suggests bringing pupils into situations which require active participation in processes of ‘negotiating meaning’, including negotiating the prevailing presuppositions about what the world is like. This also puts novices in a different position—less assimilatory—recognising their co‐constructive potencies at a more fundamental level.