Goal Aspects of Teacher Education

Despite the central role of teachers in any education system, teacher education is frequently the weakest of the links in the process of educational reform.

In examining this problem, the author focuses on the question of the goal aspects of teacher education. Examples from the Federal Republic identify some of the constraints affecting goal achievement; these include legalistic, traditionalist and socio‐economic constraints. The more open the society, the more visible are these difficulties.

The article then examines in depth five separate goal aspects of teacher training: the economic (income), social (status), formal‐legal (position), professional (everyday activity) and socio‐educational (system); these factors interrelate one to the other.

Some desiderata for the development of teacher education are identified. These include a view of the teacher as reformer, recognition of the realities of teacher employment, and also a realisation that the ‘school of tomorrow’ poses a challenge to ‘the school of today’.     

Interaction in distance education — a case study: Teaching biology at two rural schools

There are many instances where distance education for children is in a state of upheaval and change. This is particularly true of Australia and, as earlier reports indicate, of Canada. Central planners often have abandoned the old ‘correspondence schools’ and established ‘open access’ centres; central schools have been de‐centralised; correspondence stuthes are offered to children in city schools; isolated children attend ‘classes’ vastly different from their old ‘School of the Air’ classes; etc. Some of these changes are the marks of progress; the quality of other changes is debatable.

This account is that of one country teacher operating in northern South Australia where distance education has now changed to be offered, Statewide, by a series of open access schools and has also been regionalised to be offered at the initiative of Education Department Regional Centres with a broad responsibility for education of children in their region. The article makes no pretence to being considered as ‘international research literature’ — some will question whether or not it is even distance education. It is being published at my request.

The teacher functions in an areaof small country towns 50 km apart and with 500 or so people. Not too much further north, into sparsely‐watered country, the towns are likely to have 50 or so people and are up to 500 km apart!

What the paper does highlight is that there are professional people ‘out there’ who see themselves as having a stake in distance education. Central administrators and those who regard themselves as scholars in distance education are only a part of the personnel in distance education.

Ed.     

Explaining ‘Race ‘‐education

This article focuses on three models—Marxist, representational and interpretive—which have been used to explain the development of ‘race'‐education in Britain over the last 25 years. Each model is discussed initially in terms of its core assumptions and links with mainstream sociological and/or political theory, in order to clarify its intellectual origins and conceptual basis. The analytical questions which stem from these models’ assumptions are then specified and their application in the fields of ‘race’ and ‘race’ and education illustrated briefly through a discussion of published work in these areas and a study of ‘race'‐education policy and practice in initial teacher education. The latter also provides a basis for an initial assessment of the different models’ explanatory power and for considering whether there is a need for a new conceptual framework.

     

Reflections upon Teacher‐training and Postgraduate Training in Romania

The author is categoric in his emphasis upon the key role of teacher education; in both a general philosophical sense and also as official Romanian policy, teacher education is accorded a central place in the development of society.

The theme of the article is in‐service education. (Editor's note: the term used in the text is ‘postgraduate’ training, which we have retained out of deference to the excellence of the writer's English. However, this must be read throughout as ‘in‐service’ and not in the sense of, for example, French CAPES'/Agrégation or UK PGCE.)

The author shows how Romania has developed a thought‐out strategy for INSET, which sees it as a continum from initial training. Thus the process of teacher education becomes an integrated whole, which not only allows the teacher to engage with professional self‐improvement but positively requires that he/she do so. The evolution of this integrated approach has stemmed partly from a need to allow for readjustment of teacher resources in the context of a down‐turn in the demand for teachers and of a need to adapt to new demands, but these factors have been turned to positive advantage; the opportunity has been taken to concentrate upon the quality of the teacher resource.

The system devised allows a progression through clearly‐defined stages, up to Doctoral level. There is a shift in emphasis, away from knowledge acquisition to an understanding of the contribution made by the teacher to the shaping of the human personality. Research methodology is identified as having a major contribution to make to this professional development, as does also an emphasis on evaluation procedures.

Institutionally, the system has come full circle, with responsibility for INSET being vested in the institutions for initial training.

The overall aim is a forward‐looking flexibility, with the teacher education system able to answer the needs of school and society.     

Vers l'intégration de la théorie et de la pratique dans la formation initiale et continue des enseignants du second degré

The article examines issues pertaining to the training of the ‘second degree’ in France—i.e. those who teach Secondary pupils aged 11 to 18. The different categories of suck teachers, and the different forms of training received, are identified, and the article focuses specifically on the situation of lycée (upper‐Secondary) teachers. Historically, the element of pedagogy has been undervalued in this area.

In‐service education is very important. Many courses are provided, although Secondary teachers do not have statutory rights to INSET release.

Recent examination of training for this sector has revealed a number of weaknesses, among them a tendency to compartmentalisation and the fact that university trainers themselves lack pedagogic background. The de Peretti Report is referred to.

The article concludes with a close examination of aspects of the theory‐practice issue, based on the writer's extensive experience.     

Teacher Education in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

Teacher education in Czechoslovakia is part of a unified national provision of education; this covers in‐service as well as pre‐service training. The basis is that of training at Higher education level followed by life‐long upgrading.

The Marxist‐Leninist view is that the quality of the teacher is central to the educational process. Consequently, the initial and in‐service training of the teacher are of paramount importance, and the Czechoslovak system aims at an integrated approach to the entire process. In this process, acquisition of ideological, as well as professional, maturity, is seen as essential. Equally, the teacher must master his chosen discipline (s) in the scientific sense.

Additionally, it is important that the teacher be able to participate actively in the community—in, for example, family education, health care and concern for the environment.

Against this background of goals, the author outlines the Czechoslovak institutional provision for initial training, conditions for enrolment and the process of obtaining a post, before providing an in‐depth examination of the country's provision of in‐service education. A final section emphasises the position of the teacher in society, and specifically in socialist society. The teacher is, quite simply, a key figure and teacher education has to be built around this fact.

Svatopluk S. Petrá?ek is Professor of Education and Director of the European Centre of the Charles University for Further Education of Teachers.     

The Hierarchical Ordering of Conceptual Systems in Biology: problems of Student teachers

This article illustrates some of the problems faced by Student teachers of biology when they try to realize the process of ‘didactic transformation’ (Boschhuizen, 1982, p. 200) while planning their classes. This ‘didactic transformation’ raises questions of choice, structuring and sequencing. A content structure (Boschhuizen, 1982, p. 200) has been proposed: “the hierarchical concept‐map”. Joyce & Weil (1980, p. 91) point out the lack of heuristics to draw these hierarchical concept‐maps.

In cooperation with Student teachers, teacher trainers and pupils a method has been developed to draw hierarchical concept‐maps. This method has been called a method of subject‐matter analysis (Boschhuizen, 1982). This method has been introduced as a component of the curriculum of the teachers’ training course at the Free University in Amsterdam. The problems of testees who realize the process of ‘didactic transformation’ following their own cognitive structure with or without making use of the method of subject‐matter analysis, have been examined.

This research has resulted in a classification of these transformation problems.     

La formation des enseignants du secondaire: la formule belge

The author, drawing upon 37 years’ experience of the training of Secondary teachers in Belgium, offers a critical view of the present situation. His remarks bear upon training for the lower‐Secondary cycle, the system for which—though apparently simple— is in fact complex.

A 1981 reform extended the period of training to three years, but lower‐ and upper‐Secondary training, at University level, are still separate. A greater unity is desirable.

Three principles which should underpin all training are: a planned continuation into in‐service training, the development of practice‐oriented research, and (to allow of flexibility) a unit‐based approach. The length of study is important, since it has implications for maturation.

Finally, the author examines in turn each element in the range of skills, aptitudes and attitudes needed by the student teacher.     

VALUING ACADEMIC RESEARCH: TOWARDS A POLICY FOR HONG KONG'S FUTURE UNIVERSITIES

This article makes a preliminary assessment of the general strategies required to foster and evaluate research and scholarship in Hongkong's higher education sector.

It is particularly concerned with the means to be used in the measurement of research productivity in the ‘emerging universities’, namely the two Polytechnics and the Baptist College.

In recent years a number of Polytechnic‐style institutions in Australia have undergone a process of ‘becoming universities’ and It Is proposed that Hongkong may be able to learn from their experience.

An Important focus in this paper Is on the development of equitable and realistic indices of performance that will be accepted by academic and administrative staff In calculating the merit and worth of their efforts in relation to research — which for a number of Polytechnic and College staff has not been a significant aspect of their overall academic role.     

Twelve Years On: the new teacher training in the Netherlands

The author draws upon his experience as Director of one of the ‘new’ Dutch teacher training institutions, for lower‐secondary pupils, created after the Mammoth Act of 1968. Although outside the university system, they have been subject to university supervision, which led to some problems. The relationship, for example, is hierarchaic, and many universities and professors are interested only in the academic subject. There has been a progressive move away from university dominance.

Considerable effort has gone into the creation of an institutional strategy. While each of the ‘new’ colleges was free to choose its own approach, that adopted at the SOL Utrecht was radical. On the basis of the identification of the needs of future teachers, teams of specialists from different areas—for example, pedagogues as well as subject specialists —were brought together to plan, as a team, for the courses offered. This approach makes heavy demands on staff attitudes, which must be allowed for.

The school practice experience is important, and carefully planned for. Also, much use is made of audio‐visual media, including videotaping of lectures, once course content has been fixed.

The institution is committed to an integrated approach to the training of teachers.     

Practical Components in Teacher Training Programmes in Slovenia (Yugoslavia)

For the present development of teacher training system in Slovenia (Yugoslavia) two trends are characteristic: the prolongation of studies for elementary school teachers (grades 1‐8) from two to four years and an institutional shift of responsibility for subject teacher training from ‘mono‐technical’ (pedagogical academies) to ‘polytechnical’ institutions (different faculties or departments of the universities).

These trends are having important implications for the scope of practical training and its relationship to other parts of the studies. Traditional forms of practical training that had developed at pedagogical academies are being discontinued but the new ones are not yet firmly established.

The existing forms of practical training of student teachers are briefly described (exercises in general professional courses, exercises in classroom observation, teaching attempts and block practice). In addition, the role of teachers of special didactics and the role of practice teachers is analysed.

The pragmatic character of practical training has to be overcome on the basis of systematic attempts to confront students’ subjective theories on teaching and learning, based on experience, with scientific theories throughout the process of their training.

An important prerequisite for the necessary integration of different components of study and especially of theory and practice is cooperation between university teachers of academic, general professional subjects and special didactics. How do we achieve such a cooperation and overcome the negative attitude of teachers of academic subjects toward professional and practical training of students? This remains one of the open problems in the reform of teacher training in Slovenia.     

Theory and Practice in Teacher Education

The rationales pf recent and current approaches to teacher education courses are analysed, taking as the essential element the relationship between ‘theory’ and ‘practice’ that they exemplify. Overall, each of these course approaches is unsatisfactory, as they, in various ways, divorce the theory and practice of teaching and lead to one‐sided courses for the preparation of teachers.

Rather, an analysis of ‘theory’ and ‘practice'as a dialectical unity ofopposites is proposed and outlined in its application to the acquisition of the conscious skilled practice of teaching. Thus, theory is a guide to practice and practice is a test of theory and should be built into the course process as such.

This perspective is developed in the context of teacher education and the notions of knowledge and learning implied by it are amplified. The course process that is proposed builds on the strengths of the best elements of recent and current teacher education courses, whilst attempting to build theory and practice in a coherent interrelationship.     

Teacher Education and Qualifications in the People's Republic of Bulgaria

Summary The education and training of teachers is a current concern in Bulgaria, and a major reform is under way, of both the educational system and its teacher‐training specifically. The goals of permanent education play an important part in the reform, and the emphasis is placed on personal values equally with those of economic production.

Considerable attention is being given to the balance between different contributions to training programmes. Currently, for example, the pedagogical input is viewed as unsatisfactory. Additionally, more opportunity for specialisation is to be given.

In‐service education also receives major attention, and a range of establishments—including those responsible for initial training—contribute to INSET in Bulgaria. Other important contributions come from Teachers’ Qualification Centres and regional Pedagogical Consulting Offices.

Nonetheless, a new system of teacher‐training is required, which will emphasise not only pedagogy but also subject specialisms and interaction with the community. A new institutional pattern is being evolved, which will link pre‐ and in‐service education. To assist with the development of the new structure, a considerable commitment to research has been made at Ministry and Higher education levels.     

Artistic and Verbal Creative Capacity of 6‐year‐old Children and their Psychopedagogic and Social Conditioning

The subject of the study comprised individual differences of creative achievements among 6‐year‐old children in two basic and qualitatively different kinds of child's activity: verbal and artistic. The aim of the research was both the analysis of the creative capacity level differentiation and pointing out the hierarchy of factors which determine certain inter‐ and intra‐individual as well as inter‐ and intro‐group differences.

The study is based on the concepts of the creativity theory of Wallach and Kogan (1970) and the capacity theory of Renzulli (1986) and Monks (1981) developed within the framework of humanistic and cognitive psychology.

The researcher analysed 6,000 drawings and the same number of oral statements produced by 643 children attending two types of pre‐schools and living in three different habitats. The research also covered teachers working with the 6‐year‐old children.

The following were used in the study: the test ‘Draw‐a‐Man’ of Goodenough; Guilford's tests of divergent thinking; Uszynska's Questionnaire of self‐estimation; The Schaefer's and Aaronson's Classroom Behaviour Inventory Pre‐school to Primary Scale; Popek's Questionnaire of Creative Behaviour ‘KANH’, and Uszynska's Questionnaire for parents.

The results of the research confirm a great differentiation of creative capacity levels of children and suggest that the most significant factors determining them are the pedagogic ones, which may directly or indirectly be influenced by the preschool teacher.     

Lernen an zwei Orten: das Problem des ‘Dualen System’ in der lehrerausbildung

On the basis of a study of the literature and of empirical research, the article puts forward suggestions for the improvement of teacher training programmes within a dual system.

A consecutive approach to training implies that a student spends a part of the training period in an educational institution and a part in a practical situation (i.e. on teaching practice). However, the consecutive system presents considerable problems in respect both of organisation and of the psychology of learning. Organisationally, there is the question of sequence to be faced, if the elements of theory and practice are to be brought together.

On the basis of a study of the literature of other forms of professional training, the following suggestions are made:

1. students’ activities in the school must re‐inforce their learning and be integrated with their work in the training institution;

2. their educational studies must support the acquisition of the competences needed by the teacher at the outset of his/her professional career;

3. attention must be paid to the learning needs and the potential of each student.

The article describes how a teacher training programme may follow these guidelines, leading to a ‘concurrent’ set of cycles bringing together elements of theory, practice and reflection upon practice, and in which a student may alternate between the academic institution and school practice.

After giving an overview of possible models of training the author focuses upon a specific example and provides a model of the institution‐practice link. What is important is that the learning style of the student be taken into account. Each student selects from four alternative programmes, namely: instructional variants, reflection variants, selfstudy variants, and practice variants. The contents of these four programmes are explained, and the learning outcomes of students from these differentiated programmes compared with those of students from undifferentiated, ‘normal’ programs. In summary, it is claimed that in the research project described there are positive indications for a theory‐practice link which gives students a choice of approaches and a better integration of their learning into the practical classroom situation.     

Problems of a Sociological Approach to Pop Music in Schools

In this paper I shall deal with some issues raised by a sociologist interested in music education, Graham Vulliamy. I shall draw on four of his papers.

There will be certain areas of agreement between us: recognition of the importance of Afro‐American music in our century and its dominance in the popular tradition; that forms of analysis through notation are particularly inappropriate to an oral‐aural tradition; that all music is bounded by particular styles and traditions and occurs within a socio‐cultural context.

I shall briefly examine two minor points of difficulty—that Vulliamy overstates the ‘freedom’ of improvised music and the rigidity of notaled music and that he confuses discussion by conflating the views of Meyer and Longer.

There are three major issues to which we need to address ourselves. The first of these is the assumption that pop music can be legitimised in school merely by establishing that different criteria are necessary. The second arises in the attempt to provide appropriate tools of analysis by arguing, with Shepherd, that music has a kind of social referent. This proposition is stated in several ways. In some forms the proposition is acceptable but in others it is problematic.

The third issue involves problems concerning the expressive and formal elements of music and the uses to which music is put, which may range from a signal for action (or reaction) to a meaningful symbol (a much more complex and rich form of response). Using the terms ‘intensional’ and ‘engendered feeling’ as though they were synonymous and the terms ‘extensional’ and ‘embodied meaning’ as though they were the same, some confusion is created, yet there are implications for music education which are not only theoretically important but vital in practical terms of teaching and learning in schools.