Determinants of Dyadic Scaffolding and Cognitive Outcomes in First Graders

Objective. The purposes of this study were to identify mother, child, and dyadic determinants of effective mother–child collaboration and to determine the impact of this collaboration on children's cognitive development. Design. Ninety-two mother–child dyads from the Massachusetts site of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development participated in a site-specific, home-based instructional task through which they were assessed for scaffolding effectiveness. Cognitive characteristics of both mothers and children, as well as dyadic characteristics from infancy, were examined as predictors of effective dyadic scaffolding when the children were in 1st grade. In addition, concurrent cognitive capabilities of the children were regressed on scaffolding while controlling for earlier cognitive test scores. Results. Mothers' verbal intelligence and children's mental development, as well as shared sensitivity, predicted the effectiveness of scaffolding collaborations, which in turn uniquely predicted cognitive capabilities of the children. Conclusions. Effective mother–child scaffolding is a function of individual mother and child characteristics, as well as the nature of the mother–child relationship; scaffolding predicts children's cognitive outcomes.     

儿童假扮游戏中的认知技能发展

假扮游戏的出现、发展到成熟伴随儿童的认知发展．儿童需要具备必要的认知技能才能参与假扮游戏,与假扮游戏有关的认知技能主要包括:社会参照、解读意图、分离、符号化假扮、角色扮演等．假扮游戏与儿童认知发展是一个交互作用的过程,作用的起点是假扮行为的出现．     

Effects of Spatial Scale on Cognitive Play in Preschool Children

This study examines the effects of a scale-reduced play environment on temporal aspects of play behavior. Specifically, it examines the amount of time required to enter complex forms of play, the length of play segments, and the percentage of total play time spent in complex play under normal environmental conditions (full-size, control) and under scale-reduced environmental conditions (experimental). Eleven subjects (mean age of 4 years 2 months) were observed during unstructured play activity with playdough in a small-n, A-B-A-B design. Subjects served as their own controls and were self-motivated relative to the activity. The play structure (scale-reduced environment) consisted of a screened wooden frame 7' (L) x 5' (W) x 5' (H) over a vinyl floor. Results indicate subjects enter complex forms of play more quickly, engage in play segments of longer duration and tend to spend a slightly greater percentage of their overall play time in complex play under experimental conditions, as hypothesized. This study suggests attention span and information processing may be affected by the scale of the play environment. : -.     

Effects of Spatial Scale on Cognitive Play in Preschool Children

This study examines the effects of a scale-reduced play environment on temporal aspects of play behavior. Specifically, it examines the amount of time required to enter complex forms of play, the length of play segments, and the percentage of total play time spent in complex play under normal environmental conditions (full-size, control) and under scale-reduced environmental conditions (experimental). Eleven subjects (mean age of 4 years 2 months) were observed during unstructured play activity with playdough in a small-n, A-B-A-B design. Subjects served as their own controls and were self-motivated relative to the activity. The play structure (scale-reduced environment) consisted of a screened wooden frame 7' (L) x 5' (W) x 5' (H) over a vinyl floor. Results indicate subjects enter complex forms of play more quickly, engage in play segments of longer duration and tend to spend a slightly greater percentage of their overall play time in complex play under experimental conditions, as hypothesized. This study suggests attention span and information processing may be affected by the scale of the play environment. : -.     

Primary School Perception of Disruptive Behaviour

The article reports on a survey of English primary school head teachers’ opinions on disruptive behaviour, coupled with a one‐day exercise in the monitoring of disruptive incidents in the same schools. Eighty‐five highly experienced head teachers from 38 local education authorities responded to an extensive questionnaire and 77 schools monitored incidents. Schools were categorised by the LEAs as potentially ‘difficult’, ‘of average difficulty’ and ‘easy’ in respect of intake. Thirty‐six Principal Educational Psychologists contributed briefly on a question on age of onset.

Findings relate to (a) an examination of the question whether the age of onset of disruptive behaviour is getting earlier, (b) the differing perceptions of questions concerning disruptive behaviour of head teachers, in schools of varying potential difficulty of intake, and (c) the coping strategies used and favoured by head teachers in their work with disruptive behaviour.     

Disruptive Behaviour in Non-Referred Mainstream School Children,Aged Seven to Nine: A psychophysiological contribution

Data are summarised relating resting heart/pulse rate to teachers' ratings of disruptive behaviour in a sample of 206 non-referred children, aged 7-9 years, attending mainstream schools and not subject to specialist attention. Low base heart rate (BHR) was found to be associated with teachers' ratings of disruptive behaviour, confirming similar earlier research based on children aged 11-16 years. The findings are discussed in relation to psychophysiology and child development and with reference to several theoretical frameworks, identifying the need for further research.     

The Impact of Teacher-Directed and Child-Directed Pretend Play on Cognitive Competence in Kindergarten Children

The goal of our research was to study different forms of organization of pretend play on children's cognitive performance in a mixed-age environment. We studied two forms of management of the playing process: (a) teacher-directed play with simultaneous involvement of all children in the classroom, where the teacher plays the dominant role in the education process directing children's activity, and (b) child-directed play in various small groups. Twenty-six observations were performed on 51 children in two mixed-age classrooms. The mean age of the children was 4.6 years, with age span from 3 to 6 years. Data were collected regarding children's affective and cognitive behavior according to generally accepted taxonomies: Bloom for the cognitive domain, and Krathwohl for affective domain. We found a significant increase in cognitive manifestations during direction of the playing process in groups compared with frontal management of the lesson (113.1 ± 12.1 vs. 45.7 ± 10.3, mean ± SEM, p < 0.0001), which is related with better employment of the powerful education engine of the free-play children.     

Teachers' Attitudes towards Disruptive Behaviour and their Use of Internal Referral

This study offers a very neat demonstration of something which conventional wisdom holds: that our actions reflect our beliefs. But the topic under investigation is a challenging one – teachers' uses of 'referral systems' in school. The evidence suggests that referrals reflect teachers' beliefs – not, therefore, the pupils' behaviour. We do not know of a study of this sort anywhere in the literature on school behaviour, yet these findings have major implications for those pastoral systems which have become distorted into discipline systems. Michael examines these with care, taking pains not to be simply 'pointing the finger'.
Michael Evans has been teaching physical education and mathematics in London for seven years. Currently in his second secondary post as Head of Year, Michael is working to complete his MA at the University of London Institute of Education. In his spare time he heads for the hills, wind and rain of Scotland.     

残疾儿童的游戏特征及基于游戏的干预策略

残疾儿童干预的一个主要宗旨是帮助他们尽可能参与社会,游戏具有这方面的功能。成人应意识到残疾儿童不同于正常儿童的游戏特征,考虑到可以利用游戏干预残疾儿童,促使他们尽可能健康发展。基于游戏的干预策略包括:选择有效策略合理干预残疾儿童的游戏过程、创设适宜残疾儿童的游戏环境、开发适宜技术提高残疾儿童的游戏质量等方面。     

身体攻击幼儿和关系攻击幼儿的社会信息加工特点

本研究基于社会信息加工模型理论,运用问卷调查和个别访谈技术,对幼儿攻击行为的一般特征及其社会信息加工过程进行研究,以探讨身体攻击幼儿和关系攻击幼儿的社会信息加工特点。研究表明,3～6岁幼儿的攻击行为存在显著的性别差异,男孩的攻击行为多于女孩。身体攻击幼儿和关系攻击幼儿存在一定程度的社会信息加工缺陷。     

Effects of Teacher-Student Cognitive Style on Patterns of Dyadic Classroom Interaction

This study investigated the effects of cognitive style matching on interaction patterns in 48 teacher-student dyads. A test of cognitive style—field dependence-independence—was administered to 47 fifth- and sixth-grade teachers and 357 students. From these, 48 teacher-student dyads were formed so that teachers and students were matched or mismatched on cognitive style and sex, in conformity with a 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design. Each dyad was observed for two hours, from which 31 process measures were derived. Cognitive similarity or dissimilarity in and of itself did not appear to be closely associated with the interaction patterns. Rather, dyadic interaction seemed to be affected by a combination of factors including cognitive style and sex of both teachers and students, as well as certain contextual factors, the most important of which being whole class vs. individual instruction.     

儿童假扮游戏中的认知技能发展

假扮游戏伴随着儿童认知技能的发展而发展,儿童只有具备必要的认知技能才能参与假扮游戏.与假扮游戏有关的认知技能主要包括社会参照、解读意图、现实与假扮世界分离、符号化假扮、角色扮演等.假扮游戏的发展与儿童认知技能的发展是一个交互作用的过程.     

Social Interactions and Peer Perceptions of Young Physically Abused Children

14 3-6-year-old children with a history of physical abuse and a closely matched comparison group of 14 nonabused children, all of whom had been in day-care for more than a year, participated in this investigation. Behavior observations, teacher reports, and peer sociometric ratings were used to evaluate children's peer interactions. It was found that abused children initiated fewer positive interactions with peers and exhibited a higher proportion of negative behavior than nonabused comparison children. Peers viewed abused children as less well liked. Further, peers were less likely to reciprocate the initiations of abused children, although they approached abused children as often as they approached comparison children. Teachers viewed abused children as more behaviorally disturbed. Overall, results indicated that abused children experience disturbed social interactions outside the home environment, despite involvement in a day-care setting that provides alternative peer and adult role models.     

The Role of Dyadic Affect in Play and Infant Sex in Predicting Infant Response to the Still-Face Situation

This study was designed to examine mothers' and 3-month-old infants' affect in play and infant sex as predictors of infants' response to the still-face situation. Infants who evidenced negative affect in play were likely to respond with negative displays during a subsequent still-face situation. Maternal positivity in play was positively correlated with infants' social gaze in the still-face situation. In addition, maternal positivity and infant sex significantly interacted in predicting infant affective response in the still-face situation. For girls, maternal positivity was associated with decreased expressivity. For boys, maternal positivity was associated with early positive bids, which were followed by negative bids and moderately negative affect. Finally, maternal positivity and its interaction with infant sex provide unique information beyond the carry-over effect from infant affect in play to infant response to the still-face. Results are discussed in terms of patterns of individual and joint regulation.     

Mother-Child Play in Italy: Regional Variation,Individual Stability,and Mutual Dyadic Influence

Objective. This longitudinal study assessed similarities and differences in exploratory, symbolic, and social play in mother-child dyads in the south and north of Italy. Design. Altogether, 89 mothers and their children were observed and recorded at home when children were 13 and 20 months of age. From videotapes, exploratory, symbolic, and social play were coded and analyzed. Results. Children did not differ in their play with mothers across region and play type, but they played less in exploratory and more in symbolic modes as they grew. At 13 months, mothers in the south did not differ from mothers in the north in engaging in exploratory or symbolic play with their children; at 20 months, mothers in the south engaged in more demonstrations of exploratory and mothers in the north more demonstrations of symbolic play. Mothers in the south and north engaged in equivalent social play at the two ages, but northern mothers verbally praised their children more at the two ages. Child play was not stable, and mothers' play only irregularly stable. In both regions at both ages, individual variation in children's exploratory and symbolic play was specifically associated with individual variation in mothers' exploratory and symbolic play, respectively, but mothers' play did not predict children's play, nor did children's play predict mothers' play. Mothers' social play was not predictive of child play, although verbal praise was associated with child play. Conclusions. These data highlight the universality of general developmental processes in play as well as specific intra-cultural variation in parenting and child development.     

幼儿自由游戏活动中同伴交往的特点

本研究以48名3～4岁幼儿为被试,采用录像观察法考察了幼儿在自由游戏活动中同伴交往的基本特点。结果发现,幼儿与同伴交往的总次数和交往总时间随年龄增长而增多;在相同时间内,幼儿在室内与同伴的交往次数和交往时间显著多于室外;幼儿与同伴在交往性别、交往主动性、交往方式、交往性质及交往控制性上存在一定年龄和性别差异;同伴交往次数与交往时间基本能比较一致地反映同伴交往的质量,但两者有时会出现不一致,引入交往时间考察幼儿同伴交往质量很有必要。     

幼儿园中自由游戏的涵义、价值及运用

自由游戏在充分保证儿童游戏性体验的同时也体现了适宜儿童的学习方式。但是由于人们对自由游戏的片面认识使得它并未在幼儿园中发挥积极作用。幼儿园需要走出认识的误区,对自由游戏形成科学、全面的认识并合理运用。     

Aggressive and Prosocial Behaviour in Young Greek Children

Aggression, the behaviour that is intended to cause harm to persons or property, not socially justifiable, a problem of modern society and education, has been a research focus of developmental psychologists and educators in the last few decades and has been extensively studied, because of its consequences in our life. This aspect of emotional expression in young children seems to take different forms in different cultures.

At the opposite end of the spectrum from the antisocial behaviour is the prosocial behaviour, the aspect of moral contact that includes socially desirable behaviour (such as sharing, helping and cooperating). Prosocial behaviour or altruism has also attracted recently the interest of the researchers as it seems to be a human characteristic of high value that emerges from a very early stage of child development.

In this paper we present the results of an empirical study in which we try to show the ways that the young Greek children of preschool age express aggressiveness and altruism. Actually we combine the results of two pieces of research. One that has been conducted in a natural setting by observing antisocial behaviour of the children in a nursery school and the other by asking about 300 mothers of young children to prescribe the ways their children display prosocial behaviour. The results will be discussed in connection with some aspects of the early childhood moral education.     

Variability in the Play of Preschoolers with Cognitive Delays Across Different Toy Sets

The variability in the play of 30 preschool children with cognitive delays associated with different toy sets was examined. Twelve dependent variables representing categorical and sequential play were coded from videotaped home‐based independent play sessions using a continuous 15 s interval coding procedure. Analyses of toy effect were conducted both across and within toy sets. Sex by toy set interaction effects emerged for exploration, pretend, ordered multischeme sequences, and global play sophistication. Main effects across toy sets were noted for nonplay, functional play, construction, overall proportion of play, time spent sequencing activities, and length of play sequences. The pattern of play observed within each toy set was strikingly similar across each of the three toy sets. The implications of these results for practice are discussed.     

在自由玩耍中培养幼儿创造性思维的实验研究

本研究采用实验法,探索幼儿园自由玩耍对幼儿创造性思维发展所起的作用。实验结果表明：自由玩耍有助于提高儿童创造性思维的流畅性,但对儿童创造性思维独创性的促进作用存在性别差异。