The Effects of Timed and Untimed Testing Conditions on the Reading Comprehension Performance of Adults with Reading Disabilities

This study examined the effects of extra time on the reading comprehension performance of a heterogeneous group of adults with reading disabilities. Sixty-four adults participated. A clinic that assesses learning disabilities identified 22 as reading disabled, and 42 as normal readers. The 64 adults took a reading comprehension test under both timed and untimed conditions. Other skills measured included vocabulary, word reading, non-word reading, spelling, arithmetic, and short-term memory. Under timed conditions, there were significant differences between the participants with reading disabilities and the normally achieving participants. All of the reading disabled participants in the present study benefited from extra time, but the normally achieving readers performed similarly under the timed and untimed conditions. Further, in the untimed condition, the performance of the individuals with a less severe reading disability was not significantly different that of the Average readers. The study suggests that extra time during testing is an appropriate accommodation to help individuals begin to compensate for reading disabilities.     

The Effectiveness of Selected Methods of Radio Education at the School Level

The performance of students who completed a statistics examination under time limits was compared with that of students under no time limits. Another purpose of the study was to determine whether students high or low in statistics test anxiety were affected differentially by these two examination conditions. Twenty-six graduate students who were enrolled in an intermediate-level statistics course were randomly assigned to the two examination groups, timed or untimed. Both low- and high-anxious students performed better on the final course examination under the untimed condition than under the timed condition. However, the benefit of the untimed examination was greater for high-anxious students than for low-anxious students. The results were interpreted using Hill's (1984) and Wine's (1980) conceptual frameworks. The results suggest that differences between high- and low-anxious students in evaluative situations are caused by differences between them in motivational disposition and attentional focus.     

Equivalence of students' scores on timed and untimed anatomy practical examinations

Untimed examinations are popular with students because there is a perception that first impressions may be incorrect, and that difficult questions require more time for reflection. In this report, we tested the hypothesis that timed anatomy practical examinations are inherently more difficult than untimed examinations. Students in the Doctor of Physical Therapy program at Thomas Jefferson University were assessed on their understanding of anatomic relationships using multiple‐choice questions. For the class of 2012 (n = 46), students were allowed to circulate freely among 40 testing stations during the 40‐minute testing session. For the class of 2013 (n = 46), students were required to move sequentially through the 40 testing stations (one minute per item). Students in both years were given three practical examinations covering the back/upper limb, lower limb, and trunk. An identical set of questions was used for both groups of students (untimed and timed examinations). Our results indicate that there is no significant difference between student performance on untimed and timed examinations (final percent scores of 87.3 and 88.9, respectively). This result also held true for students in the top and bottom 20th percentiles of the class. Moreover, time limits did not lead to errors on even the most difficult, higher‐order questions (i.e., items with P‐values < 0.70). Thus, limiting time at testing stations during an anatomy practical examination does not adversely affect student performance. Anat Sci Educ 6: 281–285. © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.     

Math achievement,numerical processing,and executive functions in girls with Turner syndrome: Do girls with Turner syndrome have math learning disability?

Turner syndrome is a common genetic disorder associated with select deficits in executive functions, working memory and mathematics. In Study 1, we examined growth trajectories of skills in these areas, from grades 1 to 6, among girls with or without Turner syndrome. Rates of growth and performance levels at 6th grade, on an untimed math achievement test, did not suggest that girls with Turner syndrome have math learning difficulty (MLD). However, analyses did reveal lower efficiency on timed executive function tasks, among girls with Turner syndrome, who traded accuracy for speed under mild to moderate working memory demands. In Study 2 we compared numerical processing skills of 6th graders who had either Turner syndrome, MLD, low math achievement, or typical achievement in math. A numerical decomposition task revealed numerical processing deficits for the Turner syndrome and MLD groups, relative to typically achieving students. The relative difficulties in how numerical processing vs. working memory demands affected performance accuracy differed among groups, with the former demands leading to more performance difficulties in the Turner syndrome group. Our findings support the notion that girls with Turner syndrome recruit different strategies than their peers during allegedly basic numerical processing, that numerical processing deficits vs. executive function deficits underlie their difficulties with mathematics, and that math difficulties among these girls may not be apparent on untimed tests. These finding have implications for a possible manifestation of MLD.     

Number line estimation from kindergarten to grade 2: A longitudinal study

A bulk of evidence supports the association of number line estimations using Arabic digits and dots with math learning. Surprisingly few studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between estimations using number words and mathematics. The present study expands previous findings by investigating estimations in three formats (Arabic digits, dots and number), adding language as predictor and by focusing at timed and untimed math learning. A sample of 132 children was followed from kindergarten till grade 2. Results reveal variability in estimation accuracy and errors declining with age and instruction in all children. In addition, our findings suggest that Arabic numerals have a more linear distribution than number words. Moreover, our findings suggest that language explains variation in kindergarten but not in evolution and, more in particular, untimed math achievement can be predicted by number line estimation. Implications for assessment, prediction of math learning and instruction are discussed.     

Universals and specifics of math self-concept, math self-efficacy, and math anxiety across 41 PISA 2003 participating countries

The overarching goal of the present study is to investigate the factorial structure of three closely related constructs: math self-concept, math self-efficacy, and math anxiety. The factorial structure consisting of three factors, each representing math self-concept, math self-efficacy, and math anxiety, is supported in all 41 countries employed in this study. This same factorial structure is achieved at both between- and within-country levels. This study also reveals some country specific information, including country-level mean differences and within-country importance of these three math self-constructs in predicting math performance. For instance, Asian countries such as Korea, and Japan, demonstrate low math self-concept and math self-efficacy and high math anxiety in spite of their high scores on math performance. On the other hand, some of the Western European countries such as Finland, Netherlands, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland show “balanced” outcomes, with high math performance and low levels of math anxiety.     

Positive mood and math performance

Two studies are reported that assessed the impact of positive moods on students' feelings of self-efficacy and math performance. In the first study, 32 black and Hispanic girls and boys in the third to fifth grades, who had been identified by teachers as at risk for school failure, and a control sample of normally achieving classmates served as subjects. In the second study, 15 males and 3 females in junior high and high school attending a private school for students with learning disabilities served as subjects. In both studies, students were randomly assigned to a positive-mood induction condition or a no-treatment control condition. Following this, they completed a measure of self-efficacy for math and were then given 5 minutes to do 50 math problems. In both studies, analyses of covariance using standardized math scores as the adjustor variable found that children in the positive-mood condition completed significantly more problems accurately than children in the no-treatment control condition. In addition, in the junior high and high school sample, students in the positive-mood induction condition expressed greater self-efficacy for math than students in the control condition. The results of these two studies raise many questions about the role of affect, positive and negative, in the learning and performance of students with learning disabilities that researchers and teachers might explore.     

Math fluency is etiologically distinct from untimed math performance, decoding fluency, and untimed reading performance: evidence from a twin study

The authors examined whether math fluency was independent from untimed math and from reading using 314 pairs of school-aged twins drawn from the Western Reserve Reading and Math Projects. Twins were assessed through a 90-min home visit at approximately age 10 and were reassessed in their homes approximately 1 year later. Results suggested that the shared environment and genetics influenced the covariance among math fluency, untimed math measures, and reading measures. However, roughly two thirds of the variance in math fluency was independent from untimed math measures and reading, including reading fluency. The majority of this independent variance was the result of genetic factors that were longitudinally stable across two measurement occasions. These results suggest that math fluency, although related to other math measures, may also be a genetically distinct dimension of mathematics performance.     

完美主义、外语焦虑与外语成绩的相关性研究

采用特瑞—肖特的积极、消极完美主义量表中文修订版和霍维茨外语课堂焦虑量表,对长沙理工大学一年级非英语专业的267名学生进行问卷调查分析发现:大学生外语焦虑与外语成绩呈现显著的负相关关系,完美主义整体与外语焦虑和外语成绩不存在显著的相关关系,其中消极完美主义维度与外语焦虑呈显著正相关,而积极维度与外语焦虑和外语成绩不相关。     

Verbal counting skill predicts later math performance and difficulties in middle school

This study examined the role of verbal counting skill as an early predictor of math performance and difficulties (at or below −1.5 standard deviation in basic math skills) in middle school. The role of fourth-grade level arithmetical skills (i.e., calculation fluency, multi-digit arithmetic i.e. procedural calculation, and word problem solving) as mediators was also investigated. The participants included 207 children in central Finland who were studied from kindergarten to the seventh grade. Path modeling showed that verbal counting in kindergarten is a strong predictor for basic math performance in seventh grade, explaining even 52% of the variance in these skills after controlling for the mothers’ education levels. This association between early verbal counting skill and basic math performance was partly mediated through fourth-grade procedural calculation and word problem solving skills. Furthermore, verbal counting had an unique predictive relation to middle school math performance above and beyond the basic arithmetical and problem solving skills in fourth grade. Poor kindergarten verbal counting skill was a significant indicator for later difficulties in mathematics.     

The timing of executive function development is associated with growth in math achievement from preschool through second grade

We examined whether the timing of executive function (EF) development was associated with growth in children's math achievement across eight measurement occasions from preschool through second grade. Using a prospective longitudinal sample of 351 children, we found that children who developed EF later, entered preschool with the lowest levels of math performance and did not catch-up to their intermediate or early EF developing counterparts despite exhibiting a similar math growth rate through second grade. This trend was also observed after controlling for children's biological sex, early language skills, and socioeconomic background. These findings suggest that developing EF late might place children at a unique risk for math difficulties independent of important child and family level characteristics and can provide insights for instructional strategies that take into account differences in children's EF development.     

The Test‐Taking Strategy Intervention for College Students with Learning Disabilities

Limited research exists related to empirically validated strategies to assist college students with learning disabilities (LD). Given that students with LD demonstrate both fewer test‐taking skills and higher levels of test anxiety than their peers without LD, and poor test‐taking skills contribute to higher levels of test anxiety, such research is critical. The present study examines the effectiveness of the test‐taking strategy on test performance (timed/untimed), degree of strategy usage, and time on test‐taking task, with a sample of university students with LD. This strategy has been successful with adolescents with LD, but has not been studied with postsecondary populations. Results of a multiple baseline design suggested that the strategy was an effective intervention for these students. Implications are discussed.     

Concurrent and longitudinal associations between parental educational involvement,teacher support,and math anxiety: The role of math learning involvement in elementary school children

Environmental and individual factors are regarded as powerful predictors of math anxiety. However, their joint contribution to predicting math anxiety has not been thoroughly explored. To address this, two studies were conducted to examine how parental educational involvement and teacher support related to math evaluation anxiety and learning math anxiety concurrently (Study 1) and longitudinally (Study 2) and whether the effect of parental educational involvement and teacher support on math anxiety needed to go through math learning involvement. Third-grade students (Study 1: N = 1780, Study 2: N = 1850) from three public elementary schools participated in the studies. Concurrent analyses revealed that higher parental educational involvement and teacher support were associated with higher math learning involvement and lower math anxiety. Moreover, math learning involvement partially mediated the relation between parental educational involvement and math evaluation anxiety, teacher support and math evaluation anxiety, teacher support and learning math anxiety, but fully mediated the relation between parental educational involvement and learning math anxiety. Longitudinally, robust associations were found between current parental educational involvement, current teacher support, and subsequent learning math anxiety. But similar patterns did not emerge in math evaluation anxiety. Specifically, the direct effect of parental educational involvement and teacher support on math evaluation anxiety was not significant. These findings suggested the importance of taking into account the dimension of math anxiety when understanding the mechanisms of math anxiety from a dynamic developmental perspective. We demonstrate areas that need improvement and suggest possible future directions.     

The Contribution of Memory and Anxiety to the Math Performance of College Students with Learning Disabilities

The impact of memory and anxiety on math performance was analyzed in a sample of 115 college undergraduates, all of whom had a diagnosed learning disability. The direct effects of memory and anxiety on math performance were first examined, followed by an examination of whether anxiety moderates the relationship between memory and math. Both memory and anxiety were found to directly affect math performance. Additionally, anxiety served as a moderator of the relationship between memory and math for most, but not all, measures of math achievement. The moderating effect of anxiety was stronger for long-term retrieval than for short-term memory. The relationships between memory, anxiety, and math were not significantly different for males and females. These findings suggest that, when working with individuals who have low anxiety but poor memory, enhancing memory strategies may be effective for remediating problems in math. However, for those with high levels of anxiety, it may be more efficacious to first ameliorate the anxiety, as working on memory may have a negligible effect on math performance for these individuals.     

Co-development of math anxiety,math self-concept,and math value in adolescence: The roles of parents and math teachers

Despite the well-documented negative implications of math anxiety on math learning, a scarcity of theory-guided, long-term longitudinal research limits knowledge about how math anxiety develops over time. Guided by the Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions (Pekrun, 2006), the present study addresses this gap by examining (1) how math anxiety develops in tandem with the development of control and value appraisals across secondary schooling, and (2) how these three constructs co-develop in relation to characteristics of home and school contexts. We used growth mixture modeling to investigate how math anxiety, math self-concept (a frequently examined indicator of control appraisal), and math utility value (one dimension of math value) develop in parallel in a sample of 3116 adolescents, who were assessed annually across middle and high school. We identified three trajectory classes: a stable class, characterized by stably modest math anxiety, high math self-concept, and high math utility value, a linear change class, characterized by increasing math anxiety and decreasing math self-concept and utility value, and a fluctuating class, characterized by curvilinear changes in math anxiety, math self-concept, and math utility value. Parental academic support and teacher bias differentiated the stable class from the fluctuating class at the transition to middle school, and from the linear change class at the transition to high school. Our findings point to the heterogeneous contributions of control and value appraisals towards the development of math anxiety and highlight the importance of investigating multiple dimensions of the socio-ecological context at different stages of math anxiety development.     

The Effectiveness of Integrated Training Programme (ITP) in Decreasing Female Students’ Test Anxiety: Moderating Effect of Mothers’ Perfectionism

This study examined the effectiveness of an integrated training programme (ITP) in reducing female students’ test anxiety with a view to the mothers’ perfectionism as a moderating factor. A total of 60 primary school students (30 mothers with perfectionism trait and 30 mothers without perfectionism) were randomly selected using multi-stage cluster sampling and screening methods. Spielberger’s Test Anxiety Scale and Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) were administered to the students and mothers, respectively. The participants were placed into four groups (two experimental and two control groups). The experimental groups received intervention in 14 sessions. The results suggested significant differences between experimental and control groups, but there was no significant difference between the two experimental groups (group 1: students with test anxiety and perfectionist mothers and group 2: students with test anxiety and non-perfectionist mothers). The moderating effect of mothers’ perfectionism was not statistically confirmed. Implications of the study are discussed.     

A longitudinal analysis of sex differences in math and spatial skills in primary school age children

We report on a longitudinal study designed to assess possible sex differences in math achievement, math ability, and math-related tasks during the primary school age years. Participants included over 200 children from one public school district. Annual assessments included measures of math ability, math calculation achievement scores, rapid naming and decoding tasks, visual perception tests, visual motor tasks, and reading skills. During select years of the study we also administered tests of counting and math facts skills. We examined whether girls or boys were overrepresented among the bottom or top performers on any of these tasks, relative to their peers, and whether growth rates or predictors of math-related skills differed for boys and girls. Our findings support the notion that sex differences in math are minimal or nonexistent on standardized psychometric tests routinely given in assessments of primary school age children. There was no persistent finding suggesting a male or female advantage in math performance overall, during any single year of the study, or in any one area of math or spatial skills. Growth rates for all skills, and early correlates of later math performance, were comparable for boys and girls. The findings fail to support either persistent or emerging sex differences on non-specialized math ability measures during the primary school age years.     

Reciprocal relationships between math self-concept and math anxiety

The present study examined the reciprocal relationships between self-concept and anxiety in mathematics. A sample of 495 grade 7 students (51% girls) completed self-report measures assessing self-concept and anxiety three times in a school year. Structural equation modeling was used to test a cross-lagged panel model of reciprocal effects between math self-concept and math anxiety. The analysis showed a reciprocal relationship between self-concept and anxiety in math (i.e., higher self-concept leads to lower anxiety, which in turn, leads to higher self-concept). However, the magnitude of the path from anxiety to self-concept is almost half of that from self-concept to anxiety. Overall, the results provide empirical support for the theoretical notion that math self-concept and math anxiety are reciprocally related.     

The effect of perfectionism on burnout among English language teachers: the mediating role of anxiety

The results of a substantial body of research affirm that the number of teachers leaving their jobs is on the increase and the evidence is strong that the most credible explanation for the attrition is the emotional nature of the profession. The present study aimed to explore the intervening effect of EFL teachers’ anxiety on the correlations between their perfectionism and burnout levels. The participants were 276 Iranian EFL teachers. The data were analyzed by means of structural equation modeling. The findings revealed that, compared to other dimensions of burnout, depersonalization was more significantly affected by both direct and indirect effects of perfectionism. Moreover, the statistically insignificant direct associations between perfectionism and emotional exhaustion became significant due to the intervening impact of anxiety. The results of mediation analysis also confirmed the mediator role of anxiety. The results corroborate prior researches and offer illuminating insights into the mental health of teachers.     

Testing Stereotype Threat: Does Anxiety Explain Race and Sex Differences in Achievement?

Steele's (1992, 1997) stereotype-threat theory attempts to explain underperformance of minority students in academic domains and of women in mathematics. Steele argues that situational self-relevance of negative group stereotypes in testing situations increases the anxiety these students experience and that these differential anxiety levels explain performance differences. Research shows that manipulation of stereotype threat can affect academic performance. However, there has been little research testing whether anxiety does at least partially explain the relationship between race and achievement. The goal of this study was to examine whether anxiety will explain racial differences in academic performance and gender differences in math performance in the context of a nationally representative sample of high school seniors. Partial mediation was observed, with anxiety explaining significant portions of the racial differences in academic performance. Anxiety also partially explained sex differences in math achievement, although the effect sizes were very small. These results provide general support for Steele's stereotype-threat hypothesis.