Inclusion in school: a policy,ideology or lived experience? Similar findings in diverse school cultures

This article summarises three case studies examining the implementation of inclusive practices, which evidence the exclusionary pressures acting in school settings that put the needs, rights and entitlements of vulnerable children and young people at risk. It examines how three very culturally different secondary schools in England interpreted inclusive policies and illuminates the various constraints to the implementation of inclusive practices as experienced by senior leaders, teachers, parents and pupils in these schools. Conceptual unpreparedness towards inclusion versus integration, knowledge and false conceptualisations of special educational needs and difficulties associated with differentiation and time limitations were the main barriers presented. The implications for initial and professional teacher education are posited; it is suggested that inclusion can work by removing the diagnostic paradigm associated with special educational needs and by creating a framework for teachers' lifelong learning focusing on a social justice oriented pedagogy that will empower teachers conceptually and practically.     

Pupils as partners in education decision‐making: responding to the legislation in England and Ireland

Enabling pupils with special educational needs to participate more fully in the assessment, planning and evaluation of their own learning has become a principle enshrined within the legislation of many countries in recent years. Educational policy in both England and the Republic of Ireland has recognised the desirability of increased pupil involvement, and this is reflected in policy documents and in legislation which highlights the requirement of schools to take greater account of the views of pupils. This paper documents the approaches to increased pupil involvement in decision‐making adopted in England and Ireland and provides an overview of the key challenges that face policy‐makers and educators in ensuring meaningful participation for children and young people with special educational needs.     

Moving towards inclusive education in Cyprus?

Within the last decade, the government of Cyprus has encouraged and supported the education of children assessed as having special needs into the mainstream educational system. With the existing arrangements, however, many pupils who experience difficulties within schools (and many of those are pupils who have been integrated from special schools) are marginalized or even excluded from teaching. This paper looks at the existing arrangements of special education in Cyprus by analysing local practice to identify barriers to inclusion, to consider ways of improving schools and classrooms in relation to policy‐making, and to see how to go forward towards inclusive education. Using four stories from the author’s involvement with one school, and reflecting on them, the author presents what was seen as barriers to providing more inclusive education.     

Teachers' Attitudes Towards Mainstreaming and Their Pupils' Perceptions of Their Classroom Learning Environment

In spite of the widespread adoption of policies on mainstreaming, and more recently on inclusive education for children and young people with special educational needs, little is actually known about the relationship between what teachers think about such policies and the type of learning environments that they provide. In this study in New Zealand, a sample of regular primary school teachers (N= 63) were categorised according to ‘high’, ‘moderate’ or ‘low’ scores on a scale which measures their views on mainstreaming policies and practices. The pupils (N= 1729) of these teachers also completed a scale measuring perceptions of their classroom learning environments. Children taught by teachers who espoused highly positive attitudes towards mainstreaming were found to have significantly higher levels of classroom satisfaction and marginally lower levels of classroom friction than children taught by teachers with less positive attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed for further research on the role of teacher attitudes in the successful inclusion of children and young people with special needs and for policies on the implementation of effective inclusive practice. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A comparative perspective on the experiences of deaf and hard of hearing individuals as students at mainstream and special schools

Integration of individuals categorized as having special educational needs in mainstream schools has become a dominant policy in many countries. Changes in recent years in the field traditionally called "special education" have significantly influenced the education of deaf and hard of hearing individuals. The movements against segregation and toward integration and, more recently, inclusion, have created the conditions for educational changes, not only in mainstreaming but in special education. The article brings to light the views and experiences of deaf and hard of hearing people as students at special schools and mainstream schools, in order to compare the two systems from the viewpoints of those involved and to explore the possible implications of these views and experiences for the development of the educational system in Cyprus regarding inclusive education. Particular attention is given to improvement of the education of deaf and hard of hearing children.     

Educating the pupil voice

In this article John Quicke shares his concern to promote the active participation of pupils in their schools and communities. Here he argues strongly that an inclusive philosophy requires an interactionist view of learning. However, he considers that we have much yet to learn about how to identify pupils' views of learning and how these views may be encouraged to become ‘broader, more reflective and more compatible with an inclusive view of learning.’     

Listening to Young People with Physical Disabilities' Experiences of Education

There is a general acceptance that inclusion is morally and ethically the most appropriate form of education. However, more research needs to focus on how best to accommodate and support the educational needs of all students, including those with physical disabilities. Listening to young people with physical disabilities talk about their educational experiences is one way to do this. The aim of this research was to investigate the life stories of a small number of young people with physical disabilities, in particular focusing on their educational experiences. Nine young people, between the ages of 10 and 13 years, who used a manual or powered wheelchair and had the cognitive ability to participate in a series of biographical interviews, were recruited. They collaborated in the writing of their life stories. One theme identified in the analysis of these life stories was their educational experiences. The results highlight that the participants held mixed views about their education. The four who attended a segregated special school were generally positive about their experiences. Participants who had attended a mainstream school talked about positive and negative experiences. Individual and differing perspectives on friendships and the ethos of their school were noted. It is suggested that young people with physical disabilities need to be considered as individuals and that if schools are to achieve the goal of inclusion they need to develop ways to accommodate each individual's needs.     

Helping secondary schools to be more inclusive of Year 7 pupils with SEN

The authors, all District Senior Educational Psychologists (DSEPs), were asked by a Principal Education Officer to design and implement a funded project to support inclusion in the county. This action research project aimed to help secondary schools be more inclusive of their Year 7 pupils with special educational needs. Inclusion issues were identified using pupils’ responses to questionnaires based on the Index for Inclusion materials. Schools then formulated interventions to suit their particular needs. The impact of the interventions was evaluated one year later. Positive results are reported in terms of responses from the pupils with SEN.     

The Progression Guidance 2009–2010: a caution about the achievement targets

The article welcomes the publication of the Progression Guidance 2009–2010 as an important milestone in the government’s attempt to provide data to schools on how well children with special educational needs (SEN) are progressing. The materials hold the potential to enable school improvement partners, inspectors and educational psychologists to help schools become more accountable for the progress children with SEN make. However, they are based upon generic norms, which intentionally do not acknowledge category of need. Whilst there are strong inclusive principles underpinning this rationale, doubt is raised about their ability to help special schools set appropriate learning targets for pupils.     

Regular primary schoolteachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education: a review of the literature

Teachers are seen as key persons to implement inclusive education. Positive attitudes are therefore argued as playing a considerable role in implementing this educational change successfully. The aim of this study is to examine what attitudes teachers hold towards inclusive education, which variables are related to their attitudes and if these affect the social participation of pupils with special needs in regular schools. A review of 26 studies revealed that the majority of teachers hold neutral or negative attitudes towards the inclusion of pupils with special needs in regular primary education. No studies reported clear positive results. Several variables are found which relate to teachers’ attitudes, such as training, experience with inclusive education and pupils’ type of disability. No conclusion could be drawn regarding the effects of teachers’ attitudes on the social participation of pupils with special needs.     

Including Pupils with Special Educational Needs: beyond rhetoric and towards an understanding of effective classroom practice

The future of educational provision for pupils with special educational needs can be seen to be central to educational debate across Europe and the USA. Legislation from many countries has focused upon the means by which the achievement of a more inclusive education system can be achieved. This article suggests that whilst the socio‐political and moral arguments for inclusion have been well established, insufficient attention has been given to the development of an understanding of classroom practices which are conducive to creating an inclusive education system. The moral imperative for inclusion is clear and few teachers would deny that a move towards a more equitable education system should be regarded as a priority. Yet, moves towards the achievement of greater inclusion have been slow. Existing research has demonstrated that under some circumstances inclusion can be efficacious, yet many teachers remain uncertain with regard to its implementation in their schools. This article argues that there is a need to move forward from debating the justification of inclusion and to shift efforts in the direction of an analysis of effective classroom practice to meet the needs of those pupils who are currently presenting the greatest challenges to teachers.     

INCLUSIVE AND SPECIAL EDUCATION: Inclusive and special education in the English educational system: historical perspectives,recent developments and future challenges

Special education in England has over the past 25 years been subject to rapid development, not least in relation to the emergence of inclusive education. Alan Hodkinson of the Faculty of Education, Community and Leisure, John Moore's University, critically examines the development of inclusion in England and the barriers that can stall the development of this important educational and societal initiative. He discusses the journey towards inclusion from educational segregation to integration and describes the current Government stance on this important subject. Alan Hodkinson suggests that many of the barriers to effective inclusion are in practice located within the loci of Government, local authorities as well as that of schools. He concludes that it is now time to develop a new vision for the education of children with special educational needs and disabilities that is supported by straightforward, co‐ordinated and well‐resourced policies. If educational policy is to achieve an inclusive consciousness, it must ensure that the views of children, their families and educational professionals are listened to, and that inclusion is by the choice of the pupils and their parents and not by compulsion.     

Does the Code of Practice help secondary school SENCos to improve learning?

Tony Lingard is special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCo) in a large comprehensive secondary school. He believes that the requirements of the Code of Practice detract from his capacity to support pupils with special educational needs. Anticipating the introduction of a revised, but still significant, bureaucratic burden in the new Code, he reports his use of a questionnaire to gather the views of other secondary SENCos in his LEA. The results are challenging but compelling. Do individual education plans (IEPs) help subject teachers to address individual pupils' special educational needs? Do targets help pupils and parents to engage with priorities for learning? Would whole-school strategies for meeting special educational needs be more effective, efficient and inclusive than the current individualised system? Tony Lingard's article will prompt reflection in schools around the country as SENCos await the launch of the revised Code.     

Towards inclusion — our shared responsibility for disaffected pupils

Finding ways of successfully including pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties in mainstream schools remains a significant challenge as we move towards a more inclusive future. In this article, Fiona MacLeod, Upper School Co-ordinator at Willow Grove School, a special school for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties in Wigan, describes a pilot project designed to promote the reintegration of pupils at transfer to the secondary phase of their education.
She reports on a series of successful placements and discusses the factors that may have helped to sustain the inclusion of some of the pupils in her pilot group. The work described in this article was undertaken as part of the author's MA (special educational needs) programme at Lancaster University.     

Northern Ireland head teachers’ perceptions of inclusion

Inclusion has been a central educational issue for well over a quarter of a century, with continuing emphasis worldwide on initiatives by governments, Higher Education Institutions and schools that respond to the needs of children and young people with learning difficulties, disabilities or other disadvantage. This paper reports how Northern Ireland head teachers interpret inclusion in the nursery, primary, post‐primary and special sectors. Those in mainstream schools showed whole‐hearted commitment to the philosophy and practice of inclusion, and could critically examine what they have achieved so far. However, they recognized persistent and varied constraints both within and beyond their schools. Head teachers in the special sector perceived their schools to have a multiple role in providing for pupils with the greatest need, reintegrating those on placement into their regular schools, and offering outreach support to mainstream colleagues. The implications for all aspects of teacher education were identified, for beginning teachers, for more experienced practitioners and for the head teachers themselves. A number of key factors were suggested to make inclusion work.     

Children and youth in behavioural and emotional difficulties,skyrocketing diagnosis and inclusion/exclusion processes in school tendencies in Denmark

In parallel with a national school policy on an inclusive school with a marked reduction in the number of pupils who, due to their disruptive behaviour, are referred to educational provisions outside of the ordinary school environment, a sharp rise has been seen in the number of children and teenagers who are given a clinical diagnosis, first and foremost that of ADHD (Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders). Over just a few years, the skyrocketing of diagnoses has turned notions of children and teenagers with emotional and behavioural difficulties upside down. From being young people who should ‘just pull themselves together and behave properly’ many have become pupils with a neurological dysfunction that requires treatment. The article provides insight into how diagnoses over very few years have come into focus in schools and in special needs education, and how this has made a deep impression and changed understandings of the best possible special and general educational provisions for children and teenagers with behavioural and learning difficulties. The article focuses on trends in Denmark and therefore builds primarily on Danish sources.     

Social relationships and friendships among young people with Down's syndrome in secondary schools

More young people with Down's syndrome are being taught in mainstream schools and interest in the educational aspect of inclusion has grown over the last few years.
In this article Pat Cuckle, Senior Research Fellow at the University of Leeds, and June Wilson, a support teacher working for Education Leeds, explore patterns of friendship and social relationships among teenagers with Down's syndrome. The young people who took part in the study either attend mainstream schools or resourced provision in mainstream schools. The enquiry provides fascinating insights into the participants' views of friendship and into the range of their social experiences. Pat Cuckle and June Wilson conclude their report with a set of recommendations focusing on the need to create more opportunity for social interaction for young people with special needs.     

‘Asking how instead of why’: exploring inclusive approaches to teaching and learning through pupil and teacher responses to a school link project

The association of inclusive education with an equity discourse means that the question of ‘how’ to include is one currently faced by many teachers in the UK. Written by Eve Griffiths, who teaches English, literacy, media studies and drama in a special school in Wolverhampton, this article constructs a set of inclusive principles for teaching and learning and reports on pupil and teacher responses in mainstream and special schools to a three‐week literacy project in which these approaches were implemented. Research diaries and small group‐based interviews were used in both educational settings to access the opinions of 20 pupils with a Statement of special educational needs. The research found that the pedagogical approaches were successful in breaking down some barriers to inclusion between the two groups of pupils, but Eve Griffiths concludes that significant changes would need to be brought about for there to be any longevity in the eradication of these obstructions.     

Statements of special educational needs and mainstream secondary physical education in north‐west England

This article, by Anthony Maher of the University of Central Lancashire, explores, from the perspective of SENCos and learning support assistants (LSAs) in north‐west England, the perceived adequacy of Statements of special educational needs as they relate to physical education (PE). The findings, generated via online surveys, suggest that most SENCos and some LSAs believe that Statements are appropriate for all curricular subjects, with PE being no different. Thus, two groups who play an integral role in facilitating the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs in mainstream secondary schools in England do not differentiate between classroom based and more physically orientated subjects such as PE, which could have a negative impact on the experiences of pupils with special educational needs in PE because of the contextual and dynamic nature of special educational needs. Indeed, because most Statements do not provide PE‐specific information or learning targets, teachers and LSAs are often unable to collaboratively plan and deliver inclusive lessons or monitor and evaluate the progress made by Statemented pupils in PE.