Identifying critical junctures in learning in a college course on evolution

The purpose of this research study was to (a) describe how concept mapping can be used as an integral instructional strategy for teaching a college course on evolution, (b) evaluate the utility of incorporating concept mapping in a college course on evolution, (c) determine whether students' concept maps reveal “critical junctures” in learning as the course unfolds, and (d) assess the impact of concept mapping on students' study practices and on students' understanding of course content. Key findings include: (a) Critical junctures in learning evolution can be identified by monitoring the degree of concordance of superordinate concepts appearing on the class set of concept maps submitted after each of the course lectures; (b) students who made concept maps reported spending an average of 37% more study time on this college biology course than on their previous biology courses; and (c) the use of “seed concepts,” “micromapping,” a standard concept map format, and a standard concept map checklist made the strategy feasible for the instructor to implement and for the student to adopt. A concept map performance index formulas was also developed for this research study in order to assess students' overall mapping performance.     

Science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge development during enactment of socioscientific curriculum materials

The purpose of this study is to provide insight into short-term professionalization of teachers regarding teaching socioscientific issues (SSI). The study aimed to capture the development of science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for SSI teaching by enacting specially designed SSI curriculum materials. The study also explores indicators of stronger and weaker development of PCK for SSI teaching. Thirty teachers from four countries (Cyprus, Israel, Norway, and Spain) used one module (30–60 min lesson) of SSI materials. The data were collected through: (a) lesson preparation form (PCK-before), (b) lesson reflection form (PCK-after), (c) lesson observation table (PCK-in-action). The data analysis was based on the PCK model of Magnusson, Krajcik, and Borko (1999). Strong development of PCK for SSI teaching includes “Strong interconnections between the PCK components,” “Understanding of students' difficulties in SSI learning,” “Suggesting appropriate instructional strategies,” and “Focusing equally on science content and SSI skills.” Our findings point to the importance of these aspects of PCK development for SSI teaching. We argue that when professional development programs and curriculum materials focus on developing these aspects, they will contribute to strong PCK development for SSI teaching. The findings regarding the development in the components of PCK for SSI provide compelling evidence that science teachers can develop aspects of their PCK for SSI with the use of a single module. Most of the teachers developed their knowledge about students' understanding of science and instructional strategies. The recognition of student difficulties made the teacher consider specific teaching strategies which are in line with the learning objectives. There is an evident link between the development of PCK in instructional strategies and students' understanding of science for SSI teaching.     

Students' Ideas about Reaction Rate and its Relationship with Concentration or Pressure

This cross‐sectional study identifies key conceptual difficulties experienced by upper secondary school and pre‐service chemistry teachers (N = 191) in the area of reaction rates. Students' ideas about reaction rates were elicited through a series of written tasks and individual interviews. In this paper, students' ideas related to reaction rate and its relationship with concentration or pressure are discussed. Evidence is presented to support the following claims. First, school students tended to use “macroscopic” modelling rather than using “particulate” and/or “mathematical” modelling. By contrast, undergraduates were more likely to provide explanations based upon theoretical models and entities within established chemical ideas. Nevertheless, second, they had conceptual difficulties in making transformation within and across different theoretical models. Finally, students did not generally use a scientifically acceptable concept of reaction rate across contexts. Although an acceptable concept may have been used in one context, incorrect ideas may, nonetheless, have been used in other contexts. However, undergraduates' responses were less affected by context. Several conceptual difficulties exhibited by school students persisted among undergraduates. Some possible implications for planning the curriculum and teaching are proposed in the light of the results.     

Gender Difference,Misconceptions and Instruction in Science

The study examined into the relationship between gender and students' misconceptions in science. Two different groups were treated with two different teaching strategies, namely, teaching strategy 1, which is basically didactic in nature, and teaching strategy 11, which incorporates students' misconceptions and applies the Generative Learning Model. Two groups of secondary three students (N=26,27; randomly sampled), underwent 6 weeks of instruction, with the respective strategies mentioned above. Each group consisted of male and female students, the numbers of which resulted from the grouping based on their academic achievements. A constructed and validated diagnostic instrument was used as a means to measure the effectiveness of these two teaching strategies. The findings showed that gender differences did not relate well to students' misconceptions in science. The implications of this finding are discussed.     

Diagnosing Portuguese Students' Misconceptions about the Mineral Concept

Educational researchers and teachers are well aware that misconceptions—erroneous ideas that differ from the scientifically accepted ones—are very common amongst students. Daily experiences, creative and perceptive thinking and science textbooks give rise to students' misconceptions which lead them to draw erroneous conclusions that become strongly attached to their views and somehow affect subsequent learning. The main scope of this study was to understand what students consider a mineral to be and why. Therefore, the goals were (1) to identify eleventh-grade students' misconceptions about the mineral concept; (2) to understand which variables (gender, parents' education level and attitude towards science) influenced students' conceptions; and (3) to create teaching tools for the prevention of misconceptions. In order to achieve these goals, a diagnostic instrument (DI), constituted of a two-tier diagnostic test and a Science Attitude Questionnaire, was developed to be used with a sample of 89 twelfth-grade students from five schools located in central Portugal. As far as we know, this is the first DI developed for the analysis of misconceptions about the mineral concept. Data analysis allows us to conclude that students had serious difficulties in understanding the mineral concept, having easily formed misconceptions. The variables gender and parents' education level influence certain students' conceptions. This study provides a valuable basis for reflection on teaching and learning strategies, especially on this particular theme.     

The use of examinations for revealing and distinguishing between students' misconceptions,misunderstandings and “no conceptions” in college chemistry

Students at all ages hold a wide variety of scientifically faulty knowledge structures called “misconceptions”. As far as misconceptions in chemistry are concerned, college science students are no exception. Systematic administration to freshman biology majors of specially-designed mid-term and term higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS)-oriented examinations within the courses “General and Inorganic Chemistry” and “Introduction to Modern Organic Chemistry” proved these examinations to be very effective in revealing and distinguishing between students'misconceptions, misunderstandings, and“no conceptions”. Several of these have never been mentioned before in the relevant research literature. Accordingly, reflective teaching strategies to overcome this “misconceptions problem” and affect meaningfully subsequent learning have been explored and implemented within our longitudinal effort to develop students' HOCS. The study results combined with accumulated experience indicate that properly designed HOCS-oriented examinations may be very effective for revealing, but notper se for overcoming, students' misconceptions. However, within HOCS-oriented chemistry teaching, the assessment of students by such examinations is very useful particularly for providing data for remediation purposes via appropriate modification of the teaching strategies. Eventually, this leads to gains in students' HOCS which is in line with the overall goal of the current reform in science education.     

Scaling‐up of higher‐order cognitive skills‐oriented college chemistry teaching: An action‐oriented research

A major objective of the current reform in science and chemistry education is the development of students' higher‐order cognitive skills (HOCS). A major question of concern is how to improve practice, via appropriate teaching strategies, to achieve the HOCS‐oriented instruction‐learning goals of college science and chemistry education, within the current reality of large, heavily populated chemistry classes. This article presents an action‐oriented research account of HOCS‐oriented teaching of organic chemistry to freshman and sophomore science majors in small and large classes at a relatively small and large university, respectively, within a purposed attempt of overall course design reform. Inquiry‐oriented class discussions, students' active involvement in the learning process, HOCS‐type examinations, and grading of exams by both peers and course graduates were successfully applied in both the small and large classes, demonstrating the feasibility and benefits to students of interactive, HOCS‐oriented pedagogies within the reality of both class sizes. The messages are that (a) there are implementable, appropriate teaching strategies for the development of students' HOCS abilities within the reality of large lecture sections of college chemistry courses; and (b) chemistry educators should take the trouble of working harder toward the attainment of this superordinate goal despite limiting constraints. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 36: 583–596, 1999     

Teaching energy in high school by making use of history and philosophy of science

How to improve students' understanding of energy transformation and conservation remains one of the main challenges of energy teaching. To address this challenge, we developed a new teaching strategy suited to high school based on history and philosophy of science (HPS). It involves five key ingredients: study and reproduction of Joule's paddle-wheel experiment, introduction of Rankine's definition, study of a historical text of Joule, use of an “ID card of energy,” and early introduction and multiple application of the principle of energy conservation. This strategy was built and implemented in the frame of a collaborative and iterative work involving researchers and teachers. We examined the effects of this HPS-based teaching strategy on students' understanding of energy. We used a quantitative method based on pre- and post-tests (N = 95/87) completed by a qualitative analysis using both video recordings of classroom activities and videos produced by students during one of the teaching sequences. The outcomes show that the teaching strategy had an overall positive impact on students' learning of energy: in particular, Joule's paddle-wheel experiment seems to favor their understanding of the notion of energy transformation, while the early introduction and multiple application of the conservation principle appears as a relevant option to facilitate its mastering. This study illustrates how HPS might actually be introduced in classrooms and brings to light its usefulness for building new science teaching strategies.     

Programming and Mathematics in an Upper-Level University Problem-Solving Course

We discuss teaching and learning situations that surfaced when computer programming and mathematics were brought together in a course where students write computer code to explore mathematics problems. Combining programming and mathematics creates a rich ecosystem which, on top of traditional mathematics activities (writing solutions, proofs, etc.), offers simulation and experimentation, invites discussions about structure, requires logic and testing strategies, and handles mathematics objects with an added feeling of reality. Focusing on novice and inexperienced programmers, we look for answers to the practice-oriented question, “How do students reason through their difficulties when using programming to explore a mathematics problem?” Following literature review and methodology, we build the programming model, which we use to study students' experiences as they approach a mathematical problem by writing computer code. Our research is based on analyzing students' in-class work and class notes, author's observations of students working on their computers, and his interactions with students in class and elsewhere. In the four case studies that we present we touch upon students' difficulties in working with complex conditional statements and recurrence relations. As well, we discuss cases where resolving a programming issue demands posing and answering mathematical questions.     

Concept map structure,gender and teaching methods: an investigation of students' science learning

Background: This study deals with the application of concept mapping to the teaching and learning of a science topic with secondary school students in Germany.

Purpose: The main research questions were: (1) Do different teaching approaches affect concept map structure or students' learning success? (2) Is the structure of concept maps influenced by gender? (3) Is the concept map structure a reliable indicator of students' learning success?

Sample: One hundred and forty-nine high-achieving 5th-grade students from four German secondary schools participated in the study. The average age of participants was 10½ years. Gender distribution was balanced. Students produced concept maps working in small, single-sex groups.

Design and methods: There were two teaching approaches used: one based upon teacher-centred instruction and one consisting of student-centred learning. Both were followed by a concept-mapping phase. Student groups experienced either one or the other teaching approach. Concept map structures were analysed using of the method of Kinchin, Hay and Adams. We defined three different possible types of concept map structure: spokes, chains and nets. Furthermore, for assessing a student's short- and longer-term learning success, we constructed a multiple-choice knowledge test applied in a pre-, post-, retention-test design. Parametric tests, such as MANOVA, one-way ANOVA and t-tests were used to identify any differences in gender, teaching approach, number of nets per concept map and their interactions.

Results: Type of teaching approach had an effect on concept map structure but not on students' longer-term learning success. Students of the teacher-centred approach produced more net structures than those students who participated in the hands-on instruction. Subsequent analyses showed in total more net structures for female groups. The interaction of gender and number of nets per concept map showed a significant effect on students' longer-term learning success.

Conclusion: The study suggests that Kinchin's classification scheme for assessing concept map quality may be a good indicator of students' learning success when applied in combination with a knowledge test.     

If concept mapping is so helpful to learning biology,why aren't we all doing it?

Concept mapping is described repeatedly in the literature as a tool that can support and enhance students' learning in science classrooms. Despite such endorsements, the use of concept mapping as a basis for classroom activities in UK secondary schools does not seem to be widespread. Some of the flaws in the supporting literature are highlighted. The two main barriers to the extensive adoption of concept mapping as an integral component of typical classroom strategies are seen as the epistemological beliefs of classroom teachers and the underlying philosophy of the curriculum that they are asked to deliver. In conclusion, concept mapping is seen as a tool that may support learning within an appropriate teaching ecology. Such an ecological perspective may require, for some, a re-conceptualization of the teacher's role in which teaching, learning and change are seen as integrated components of effective teaching.     

In Physics Education,Perception Matters

Student difficulties in science learning are frequently attributed to misconceptions about scientific concepts. We argue that domain‐general perceptual processes may also influence students' ability to learn and demonstrate mastery of difficult science concepts. Using the concept of center of gravity (CoG), we show how student difficulty in applying CoG to an object such as a baseball bat can be accounted for, at least in part, by general principles of perception (i.e., not exclusively physics‐based) that make perceiving the CoG of some objects more difficult than others. In particular, it is perceptually difficult to locate the CoG of objects with asymmetric‐extended properties. The basic perceptual features of objects must be taken into account when assessing students' classroom performance and developing effective science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) teaching methods.     

Teaching and learning the concept of chemical bonding

Chemical bonding is one of the key and basic concepts in chemistry. The learning of many of the concepts taught in chemistry, in both secondary schools as well as in the colleges, is dependent upon understanding fundamental ideas related to chemical bonding. Nevertheless, the concept is perceived by teachers, as well as by learners, as difficult, with teaching commonly leading to students developing misconceptions. Many of these misconceptions result from over‐simplified models used in text books, by the use of traditional pedagogy that presents a rather limited and sometimes incorrect picture of the issues related to chemical bonding and by assessments of students' achievement that influence the way the topic is taught. In addition, there are discrepancies between scientists regarding key definitions in the topic and the most appropriate models to teach it. In particular, teaching models that are intended to have transitional epistemological value in introducing abstract ideas are often instead understood by students as accounts of ontological reality. In this review paper we provide science educators, curricula developers and pre‐service and in‐service professional development providers an up‐to‐date picture regarding research and developments in teaching about chemical bonding. We review the external and internal variables that might lead to misconceptions and the problematic issue of using limited teaching/learning models. Finally, we review the approaches to teaching the concept that might overcome some of these misconceptions.     

Emotionally and motivationally supportive classrooms: A state-trait analysis of lesson- and classroom-specific variation in teacher- and student-reported teacher enthusiasm and student engagement

Teacher enthusiasm and student engagement are often interrelated and have important implications for student learning and students' and teachers' well-being. However, results on the lesson-specific variation of teachers' and students' affective-motivational experiences and their interplay are scarce. This study investigated variation in teacher enthusiasm and student engagement, each rated by teachers (n = 70) and students (n = 1537), as indicators of a shared affective-motivational climate in ninth-grade math classrooms across five consecutive lessons. Multitrait-multistate analyses revealed substantial “trait-like” consistency in all four affective-motivational measures. However, there was also a substantial degree of “state-like” lesson-specific variance that was shared across the four measures. This indicates that teachers' and students’ affective-motivational experiences are shaped by situation-specific influences and person-by-context interactions, which are shared between teachers and students. Teacher gender, teaching experience, class-level achievement, and the availability of motivationally supportive instructional interventions failed to explain substantial variance in these associations.     

Students' and teachers' misapplication of le chatelier's principle: Implications for the teaching of chemical equilibrium

The aim of this article was to study the reasons, strategies, and procedures that both students and teachers use to solve some chemical equilibrium questions and problems. Inappropriate conceptions on teaching and a lack of knowledge regarding the limited usefulness of Le Chatelier's principle, with its vague and ambiguous formulation and textbook presentation, may be some of the sources of misconceptions about the prediction of the effect of changing conditions on chemical equilibrium. To diagnose misconceptions and their possible sources, a written test was developed and administered to 170 1st-year university chemistry students. A chemical equilibrium problem, relating to the students' test, was solved by 40 chemistry teachers. First, we ascertained that teacher's conceptions might influence the problem-solving strategies of the learner. Based on this first aspect, our discussion also concerns students' and teachers' misconceptions related to the Le Chatelier's principle. Misconceptions emerged through: (a) misapplication and misunderstanding of Le Chatelier's principle; (b) use of rote-learning recall and algorithmic procedures; (c) incorrect control of the variables involved; (d) limited use of the chemical equilibrium law; (e) a lack of mastery of chemical equilibrium principles and difficulty in transferring such principles to new situations. To avoid chemical equilibrium misconceptions, a specific pattern of conceptual and methodological change may be considered.     

The effect of concept mapping on students' anxiety and achievement in biology

The results of recent studies into the use of the concept mapping heuristic seem to demonstrate that meaningful learning results through its use in science classrooms. While this underscores the need to use more effective instructional strategies in science teaching, the issue of the intervening variable of anxiety in learning and science achievement, and the possible use of a metacognitive strategy in anxiety reduction have not been addressed. This study, therefore, sought to find out if the metacognitive strategy of concept mapping reduces anxiety and thereby enhances achievement in biology. A total of 51 (30 boys, 21 girls) senior secondary one (grade 10) students participated in this experiment. Two instruments—the Zuckerman Affect Adjective Checklist and the Biology Achievement Test—were used in pre- and posttest administrations to measure the treatment effect on anxiety and achievement, respectively. Findings support the stand that concept mapping is significantly more effective than the traditional/expository teaching strategy in enhancing learning in biology. In addition, it apparently reduces students' anxiety towards the learning of biology. A significant reduction of anxiety was noticed for male subjects.     

IMPROVING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ASSESSMENT RESULTS AND STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

Studies have shown that physical science students' understanding of concepts, and relations between concepts, is often less than would be expected from the assessment results they achieve. Explanations for the difference include the widespread use in examinations of ‘problems’ which, given sufficient rehearsal, become little more than exercises. Many of these examinations containing exercises are also thought to encourage surface approaches to learning, leading to lower quality learning outcomes. In this study we compare students' performances in an alternative assessment method — creativity exercises — with their results in concept mapping and traditional examination exercises. Student performance in all three methods was found to correlate positively with a deep study strategy, while low correlations between the three methods suggest that they may test three different aspects of chemistry knowledge. If used together these methods may encourage a deeper approach to learning, contribute to a greater understanding of the subject and be more beneficial in helping students improve their learning and problem solving abilities.     

Questions of chemistry

The research reported here derives from the general field of learner-centred teaching and learning, with specific reference to undergraduate chemistry. It documents the use of student-generated questions as diagnostic of their willingness to engage in classroom interactions. It explores four ways of gathering students' written questions and their relative effectiveness. It examines students' capacity to design and present 'quality questions' during phases of their learning and the extent to which these questions are indicative of particular styles of interaction in the classroom, both with tutors and with other students. The results are drawn from data collected through written questions posted into a question box, the 'hits' recorded on a computer software system, and through one-to-one interviews with a sample of 32 students. The results provide an opportunity to discuss the quality of interactions within fairly formalized systems of teaching and learning of chemistry in a university setting and to suggest further research required in this field.     

The Effects of Using Concept Mapping for Improving Advanced Level Biology Students' Lower- and Higher-Order Cognitive Skills

This paper reports on teachers' use of concept mapping as an alternative assessment strategy in advanced level biology classes and its effects on students' cognitive skills on selected biology concepts. Using a mixed methods approach, the study employed a pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design involving 156 students and 8 teachers from intact classes. A researcher-constructed Biology Cognitive Skills Test was used to collect the quantitative data. Qualitative data were collected through interviews and students' personal documents. The data showed that the participants utilized concept mapping in various ways and they described positive experiences while being engaged in its use. The main challenge cited by teachers was the limited time available for more consistent use. The results showed that the use of concept mapping in advanced level biology can lead to learning gains that exceed those achieved in classes where mainly traditional methods are used. The students in the concept mapping experimental groups performed significantly better than their peers in the control group on both the lower-order (F₍₁₎?=?21.508; p?<?.001) and higher-order (F₍₁₎?=?42.842, p?<?.001) cognitive items of the biology test. A mean effect size of .56 was calculated representing the contribution of treatment to the students' performance on the test items.     

A New Autonomy-Supportive Way of Teaching That Increases Conceptual Learning: Teaching in Students' Preferred Ways

We tested the educational utility of “teaching in students' preferred ways” as a new autonomy-supportive way of teaching to enhance students' autonomy and conceptual learning. A pilot test first differentiated preferred versus nonpreferred ways of teaching. In the main study, a hired teacher who was blind to the purpose of the study taught 63 college-age participants in small groups the same 48-minute lesson in one of these two different ways, and we assessed participants' perceived autonomy support, autonomy-need satisfaction, engagement (self-report and rater scored), and conceptual learning (self-report and rater scored). Multilevel analyses showed that participants randomly assigned to receive a preferred way of teaching perceived the teacher as more autonomy supportive and showed significantly greater autonomy-need satisfaction, engagement, and conceptual learning. Mediation analyses using multilevel modeling for clustered data showed that this way of teaching enhanced conceptual learning because it first increased students' autonomy. We conclude that “teaching in students' preferred ways” represents a way of teaching that increases students' autonomy, engagement, and conceptual learning.