Changes in outdoor learning in primary schools in England, 1995 and 2017: lessons for good practice

ABSTRACT

Outdoor learning provides memorably relevant learning and authentic, contextualised opportunities to extend classroom-based education. This research draws on empirical data from surveys involving teachers in primary schools in England in 1995 and 2017 (n=61 and n=40 respectively). The evidence illustrates that schools are continuing to use their playgrounds and day visits as locations for practice. Teacher expertise had decreased by 2017 but the major challenges and barriers to implementation of time and expense remain similar in both years. Teachers no longer see outdoor ‘education’ as a subject in its own right but within the physical education curriculum although Early Years Foundation Stage practitioners report an enabling curriculum for outdoor learning. The research identifies the strength of teachers’ values and beliefs, an open approach to curriculum interpretation, the importance of suitable locations, a culture of risk benefit and positive initiatives as key ingredients for successful outdoor learning in primary schools.     

Entering the Fray: The role of outdoor education in providing nature-based experiences that matter

Abstract

This article draws on different bodies of knowledge in order to review the potential role of outdoor education in providing nature-based experiences that might contribute to sustainable living A pragmatic perspective is adopted to critique what outdoor education is,and then what it might be. Phenomenology is used to challenge the belief that there is a causal relationship between activities and learning outcomes but foremost to consider what it is to be in nature in the first place. Aspects of both realism and social constructionism are presented as essential to environmental philosophy and the concomitant, but contested, relationship between people and planet. Through these multiple realities the moral significance of nature emerges not only as a theoretical consideration but as a practical one too. In this way I challenge dualisms that provide stumbling blocks to practice and celebrate instead pluralistic thinking where starting points are based on real-life work settings where theory and practice can emerge together through place-specific solutions.     

Learning about the past: exploring the opportunities and challenges of using an outdoor learning approach

This paper examines the potential of outdoor learning for supporting children’s understanding of and attitude towards history. A class of primary school children participated in an intensive experiential, residential history programme. A range of data was collected before, during and after the residential programme, and the findings suggest that the experience had a positive impact on the children’s attitude towards history and enabled many of the children to be able to easily recall highly specific factual knowledge. However, the children’s understanding of history as a provisional construct was not developed, as it was not a strong feature of the programme. Nor was the experiential nature of the experience fully exploited. Overall the study suggests that such a programme has the potential to support children’s learning of the past, but a deeper understanding of history, drawing on the benefits of outdoor learning pedagogy, needs to be planned for more explicitly.     

A sociocultural investigation of pre-service teachers’ outdoor experiences and perceived obstacles to outdoor learning

Abstract

This study utilizes a sociocultural approach to explore how pre-service elementary teachers’ experiences in both outdoor and formal school settings have contributed to their intentions for taking their students outdoors and perceived obstacles to doing so. The participants were pre-service elementary teachers (N?=?95) enrolled in an elementary science education methods course at a public university in the Midwestern United States. This study builds on the qualitative research methodology established in a prior research study, whereby after reading Richard Louv’s book entitled Last Child in the Woods, pre-service teachers completed written essay responses to prompts about their past outdoor experiences, their intentions for taking their students outdoors, and additionally in this study, perceived obstacles to doing so once they become teachers. Analysis of the data indicates the importance of participants’ youth experiences in the outdoors and positive intentions for taking students outside. In addition, findings describe major obstacles discussed by pre-service teachers, and we use sociocultural theory to analyse the context of these findings. Implications for teacher educators working to better equip pre-service teachers to overcome these perceived obstacles are discussed.     

Complementing classroom learning through outdoor adventure education: out-of-school-time experiences that make a difference

Recent research underscores the importance of the skills, beliefs and behaviors that support student achievement in the classroom and beyond. This set of intrapersonal and interpersonal assets (e.g. perseverance, grit, social skills, efficacy beliefs and mind-sets) are often referred to as noncognitive factors, as they are not measured directly by traditional academic assessments. Outdoor adventure education (OAE) is well positioned to deliver these desired outcomes—boosting self-confidence, self-efficacy and social skills while developing leadership and communication competencies. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to better understand the form, function and delivery of an effective OAE program/school partnership targeting factors that support student success. Findings explain how shared OAE experiences among adolescent girls attending the same school contribute to greater social connectedness, self-efficacy in leadership competencies, and a recalibrated sense of self and personal potential.     

Place-based curriculum making: devising a synthesis between primary geography and outdoor learning

Outdoor learning provides children with an opportunity to experience the interdisciplinary nature of the real world through interactions with each other and the planet. Geographical enquiry involves exploring the outdoors in an investigative capacity. Space, place and sustainability are three core concepts in primary geography, although sustainability is applicable to all curricular areas. This article argues that the disciplines of primary geography and outdoor learning have much to gain through mutual cooperation and collaboration. For instance, primary geography programmes should include extensive outdoor learning initiatives using local sites such as the school grounds and the local area. This article attempts to make links between the two disciplines of primary geography and outdoor learning, in the interests of promoting education for sustainability. Specifically, the article argues for a conscious synthesis which blends the three dimensions of place, space and sustainability into geographical place-based curriculum making.     

Project-based learning in primary schools: effects on pupils' learning and attitudes

This study focuses upon the effectiveness of project-based learning on primary school pupils regarding their content knowledge and attitudes towards self-efficacy, task value, group work, teaching methods applied and peers from diverse ethnic backgrounds. A cross-curricular project was implemented within the curriculum area of environmental studies under the title of ‘sea animals’. The methodology applied in this study was the quasi-experimental research design. The findings of the present study support the view that pupils can gain benefits through project-based learning in obtaining content knowledge and group work skills and that they became less favourable to traditional teaching versus experiential learning. Motivation (self-efficacy and task value in terms of environmental studies) and developing positive attitudes towards peers from a different ethnic background were changed in moderate levels after the project.     

Effective teaching and learning strategies in outdoor education: findings from two residential programmes based in Australia

This paper aims to contribute to on-going discussion about the teaching and learning strategies used in effective outdoor education programmes. A naturalistic inquiry was conducted with two schools that participated in 28-day outdoor education programmes facilitated by the same outdoor provider in Australia. Data were collected through five semi-structured interviews with the school teachers and programme leaders and five focus groups conducted with the students. The Life Effectiveness Questionnaire was also administered to 261 students pre- and post-programme and results confirmed that the outdoor education programmes were producing desired improvements in the students’ perceptions of their general life skills. The findings of the qualitative analysis confirmed the importance of carefully sequenced activities, a facilitative teaching style, and active engagement as teaching and learning strategies. More research is needed to confirm the teaching and learning strategies that should be prioritised in the education of future outdoor education leaders.     

Irish primary school teachers' experiences with Sport Education

This study examines the degree of active learning, participation and engagement of civic, social and political education (CSPE) pupils through an analysis of interview and focus group data, supplemented with key findings from a survey undertaken with CSPE pupils. The study focuses on pupils’ views of the status of CSPE, their experience of active learning, or its absence, and the benefits pupils derived from active/experiential learning. These findings are presented in terms of gender and school-level differences and are analysed within an appropriate participation framework.

The importance of citizenship education is conceptualised through a review of participation theory and the rationale for engaging pupils in active/experiential learning. It is argued that whilst it is important to engage young people in this type of learning, it can only be achieved if teachers believe in it and are willing to give pupils the appropriate autonomy needed to succeed. Examining pupil accounts of CSPE and active learning reveals there is a disparity in perspective between pupils who, in some schools, have benefited greatly from CSPE (through increased confidence and skills development) and those in other schools, where some pupils appear to have subverted active learning and have benefited little.     

The place and approach of outdoor learning within a holistic curricular agenda: development of Singaporean outdoor education practice

This paper details the potential contribution of outdoor education (OE) in Singaporean education given the recent raft of national curricular reforms aimed at fostering holistic and exploratory learning opportunities. In this context, we contend that increasing recognition of the value of OE, both internationally and locally, heralds specific challenges within unique Singaporean educational conditions that must be taken into account for this subject area to flourish. In particular, we seek to distil the ways in which local community, cultural and school conditions signal the need for a more place-based and contextualised version of OE. Our analysis further addresses the need for adequate professional development frameworks to be installed in order to enhance existing local teachers’ capacities to substantially educate pupils through the outdoors, within a Southeast Asian urban context.     

A strengthened teaching mission in preschool: teachers' experiences,beliefs and strategies

This paper aimed to explore how preschool teachers' experience their strengthened teaching mission, specifically when working with scientific exploration. The study was based on the philosophy of the life-world, a branch of the phenomenological movement. Life-world philosophy focuses on the concrete reality humans inhabit and is responsive to its inherent ambiguity. The data consisted of written teacher responses and follow-up interviews. The findings showed a broad and multidimensional way of working with science and exploration in which embodied experiences and intertwined relationships were prominent. Teachers' notions of what constitutes scientific exploration and learning represent a combination of science as literacy and science as inquiry, emphasising democracy, aesthetics, experimentation and reflection. Being present and focusing children's relationship with the phenomena seem to be teachers' strategies of handling their strengthened teaching mission.     

Learning while playing: Children's Forest School experiences in the UK

Children's outdoor play is declining, despite clear links between play, learning and development. Alternative learning initiatives which provide children with a diversity of play opportunities, including the chance to play outdoors, are therefore needed. One such programme, Forest School, is increasing in popularity in the UK and internationally, yet little is understood about its impact on children's learning, or how alternative approaches are informing learning in mainstream settings. This novel study examined primary school children's experiences of engaging in a Forest School programme in relation to this intersection between formal and informal approaches to learning. It explored how children interpret their experiences when faced with a fusion of learning environments and critically evaluates the benefits children realise, when asked to reflect on their learning engagement in both classroom and outdoor settings. Interviews were conducted with 33 children from two mainstream primary schools in England who had recently completed a 6-week Forest School programme. A rigorous phenomenological thematic analysis revealed three inter-related themes: a break from routine; learning through play; collaboration and teamwork. The findings suggest that the blending of Forest School with mainstream settings contributes to children's social, cognitive, emotional and physical skill development through experiential learning using play. These findings are significant because they not only emphasise the values of social constructivist play-pedagogy which underpin Forest School practice, but also highlight the need for primary schools to consider learning outside of the classroom as an effective pedagogy.     

Opening the black box of field experiences: How cooperating teachers' beliefs and practices shape student teachers' beliefs and practices

This study employed ethnographic methods to describe and explain changes to beginning science teachers' (n = 6) practices and beliefs during a year long internship. Teaching practices were strongly influenced by the cooperating teachers. Initially, all six interns attempted to re-enact lessons they witnessed their cooperating teachers teach, including following lesson structures and borrowing representations, anecdotes, and jokes. Later, they independently implemented instruction that emphasized similar strategies as their mentors, regardless of whether or not they were experiencing success. Interns who were successful also shifted their beliefs to match their mentors.     

Primary school teachers and outdoor education: Varying levels of teacher leadership in informal networks of peers

ABSTRACT

The study concentrated on an area in Greece with a multiplicity of sites for outdoor education. Informal networks of teachers were detected through a snowball technique and data were collected by means of a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. A typology was first enriched to account for teacher interaction. This typology was then operationalized to assess teacher leadership in outdoor education. Participants were classified in three clusters, namely, “strugglers,” “domesticators,” and “succeeders”. Leadership covariated with ability to overcome obstacles, master “affordances” of destinations, and focus on on-site instruction. Peer interaction offered opportunities for reflection. Leadership categories revealed a transient character, which implied that peer interaction might facilitate empowerment. However, there were indications of protecting existing practice against innovation. Implications for leadership development are discussed.     

Analysing attempts to support outdoor learning in Scottish schools

The new ‘Curriculum for Excellence’ in Scotland outlines a policy vision of a more integrated and holistic form of education; a commitment which offers considerable prospects for increased levels of outdoor learning in schools. With reference to Fullan’s theorizing on achieving educational change, this study investigated four main implementation areas, namely: policy aims, partnerships arrangements, and associated professionalism and sustainability issues. Evidence was collected through a series of 16 semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders at national, local authority, and school level. Despite increased agreement on aims, it was found that improving the frequency and quality of outdoor learning in schools was adversely influenced by the patchwork nature of partnership support at national and local authority levels. This has curtailed the prioritizing of outdoor learning in schools and of teachers being supported when trying to make use of their increased curriculum decision-making responsibilities. Thus, only limited evidence was found of policy-related innovation and considerable evidence of policy stasis. As such, building national capacity is proving difficult. It is concluded that further research on how some atypical schools have managed to develop their programmes offers the best prospects for understanding the complexities of achieving greater levels of outdoor learning.     

The changing experiences of primary teachers: responding to scenarios involving diverse sexualities

Sex education and diverse sexualities are controversial topics within the primary school arena. Concepts of childhood innocence have influenced sex education curriculum, policy development and teaching practices within schools. However, research shows that primary school-aged students are aware of and talk about sexualities. The aim of this research is to reveal the pedagogical experiences of primary school teachers in relation to scenarios inclusive of diverse sexualities. Social constructionist theories of pedagogy and phenomenographic methods are used to provide a detailed analysis of the ways in which primary teacher participants conceptualise their encounters with students who introduce concepts of diverse sexualities. This research reveals that primary students ask questions about diverse sexualities, they use homophobic expressions (often as a daily occurrence), they sometimes reveal homosexual feelings to teachers, some have same-sex parents and some are being raised with knowledge of diverse sexualities. Without comprehensive policy and curriculum support, and appropriate professional learning for teachers, teachers are unable to make well-informed pedagogical decisions that promote inclusive education.     

Enough of Ronald and Mickey: focusing on learning in outdoor education

Fifteen years ago Loynes expressed concern that market-place values were detrimentally impacting on the provision of outdoor education experiences. As tertiary educators with an interest in the impact of globalization on outdoor education, we have sought to extend Loynes’ use of McDonaldization by drawing on Bryman’s conceptual framework of Disneyization in order to more deeply understand patterns of contemporary consumption. We draw on field visits to investigate the degree to which these two concepts have permeated the provision of recreational providers that serve schools. We contend that there is evidence that Loynes’ concerns remain valid, but we suggest that more recent discourses around ‘place’ may offer viable and supportable alternatives to ‘consumption-oriented’ outdoor education practice.     

Outdoor education in rural primary schools in New Zealand: a narrative inquiry

ABSTRACT

This research examines teaching outdoor education in two rural primary schools in Aotearoa New Zealand. The aim was to give ‘voice’ to how outdoor education is taught, programmed and understood. Underpinning the research was the question: what factors enable/constrain teachers’ ability to implement outdoor education? The findings suggest: confusion about outdoor education terminology and the educative purpose of school ‘camps’; schools ‘do what they have always done’, particularly when decisions about outdoor education contexts are dominated by senior management; financial restrictions; and teachers feeling ill-prepared in terms of safety management because of their limited pre-service and post-service teacher education. This research highlights that what to teach, how to teach and where to teach outdoor education needs more consideration and attention for teachers to be better informed about safe outdoor practices and quality pedagogy in, for and about the outdoors.     

Experiential and outdoor education: the participant experience shared through mind maps

This paper describes an analysis of mind maps capturing the experiences of the participants in an experiential and outdoor education course. The method of mind mapping is usually limited to a quantitative scoring analysis and comparative content analysis of concepts. As a consequence, the visual elements of the information are usually ignored, but to analyze the holistic information, it is necessary to analyze its visual elements. This intention underlines this study of five chosen pairs of mind maps made by participants in the outdoor course comparing their impressions at the beginning and end of the course. A qualitative review of the visual and symbolic levels of information found a significant impetus occurring in the participants’ view of their life journey and the possibility of changes due to the course experience. There is a visible tendency toward changes between first and second maps, from vague fears to acceptance of one's self, from polarity to holistically perceived reality, from vague concepts to colorful visual symbolism, from focus on the past to open acceptance of the future, from personality to community, and from the physical dimension of the experience to the spiritual or holistic level of the meaning of the experience.     

Exploring students' learning challenges in environmental education

There is growing recognition of the significance of learning within debates about sustainable development. Within the field of environmental education research, however, there has been insufficient attention given to questions of learners and learning. In the light of this situation, this paper reports findings from two studies (one in England, the other in Sweden) that focused specifically on learners' experiences of and responses to environmental curricula in secondary school and higher education. Three kinds of learning challenges that can be experienced by students on environmental education courses are outlined and discussed. The main purpose of the paper is to highlight the complexity of the learning experience within environmental education and to draw attention to the need for improved research‐based understandings of environmental learning processes.