Cognitive and metacognitive components of learning: Search for the locus of retarded perfomance

The introduction to this article gives a short overview of the main theoretical ideas which have been advanced to explain the low cognitive perfomances of retarded persons in learning and problem solving. The question of how retarded learners organize and control their problem solving activities led the authors to conduct a series of single case studies investigating qualitative and dynamic aspects of retarded learning. Metacognitive training research, socio-cognitive theories and a schema-theoretical top-down/bottom-up model of information processing constitute the theoretical background. In a tutorial setting mentally retarded and learning disabled subjects were presented tasks which consist of connecting amorphous clouds of dots in order to reproduce geometrical model figures. Verbal and behavioral data were collected to precisely describe the subjects problem solving activities. Post-hoc a two-dimensional category system listing 28 different problem solving components was developed. The first dimension introduces a distinction between explorative, elaborative, planning and control components, the second dimension specifies whether the components are initiated topdown or bottom-up. This category system is presented in detail followed by a few examples of analyzed problem solving sequences. Finally, the proposed model and inherent methodological problems are discussed.     

The CLIA-model: A framework for designing powerful learning environments for thinking and problem solving

A major challenge for education and educational research is to build on our present understanding of learning for designing environments for education that are conducive to fostering in students self-regulatory and cooperative learning skills, transferable knowledge, and a disposition toward competent thinking and problem solving. Taking into account inquiry-based knowledge on learning and recent instructional research, this article presents the CLIA-model (Competence, Learning, Intervention, Assessment) as a framework for the design of learning environments aimed to be powerful in eliciting in students learning processes that facilitate the acquisition of productive knowledge and competent learning and thinking skills. Next, two intervention studies are described that embody major components of this framework, one focussing on mathematical problem solving in primary school, and a second one relating to self-regulatory skills in university freshmen. Both studies were carried out in parallel with the development of the framework, and were instrumental in identifying and specifying the different components of the model. They yielded both promising initial support for the model by showing that CLIA-based learning environments are indeed powerful in facilitating in students the acquisition of high-literacy learning results, especially the acquisition and transfer of self-regulation skills for learning and problem solving.     

Problem-based learning pedagogies: psychological processes and enhancement of intelligences

Education in this 21st century is concerned with developing intelligences. Problem solving in real-world contexts involves multiple ways of knowing and learning. Intelligence in the real world involves not only learning how to do things effectively but also more importantly the ability to deal with novelty and growing our capacity to adapt, select and shape our interactions with the environment. Knowledge in this new millennium is increasingly characterized by the creative integration of information and learning from diverse disciplines. Educators, policy makers and researchers need to be aware of new approaches of dealing with knowledge and information where problems can be used innovatively in pedagogies. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an inquiry-based pedagogy that is best rooted in sound understanding of the psychological processes of problem solving and the development of cognition. Whilst many educators support the need to develop multiple intelligences, few realize that one of the best ways to draw forth these intelligences is to understand the psychology of using real world problem scenarios and engaging inquiry. This paper addresses the state-of-the-art of PBL along three themes. The first is the psychology of cognition, metacognition, and self-regulation in problem-based pedagogies. The second is the idea of making thinking and mind visible through dialogue and inquiry. The third theme is the use of learning environments beyond the boundaries of the classroom to enhance problem-based thinking. Finally, the implications for educational innovation and practices are discussed.     

Constructing Problems in a Web‐Based Learning Environment

Abstract

This article describes how the World Wide Web was implemented in a graduate course. The interactions that took place among the students and between the students and instructor illustrate how problem‐based learning strategies can be supported by the Web. Of particular note, the course content focused on technology‐based learning, thus students were immersed in an authentic learning environment. The article chronicles the various strategies ? that students implemented to facilitate the problem‐solving process and concludes by way of issues to consider when implementing such strategies within Web‐based learning environments     

Designing and implementing a case-based learning environment for enhancing ill-structured problem solving: classroom management problems for prospective teachers

This design-based research study is aimed at two goals: (1) developing a feasible case-based instructional model that could enhance college students’ ill-structured problem solving abilities, while (2) implementing the model to improve teacher education students’ real-world problem solving abilities to deal with dilemmas faced by practicing teachers in elementary classrooms. To achieve these goals, an online case-based learning environment for classroom management problem solving (CBL-CMPS) was developed based on Jonassen’s (in: Reigeluth (ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, 1999) constructivist learning environment model and the general process of ill-structured problem solving (1997). Two successive studies, in which the effectiveness of the CBL-CMPS was tested while the CBL-CMPS was revised, showed that the individual components of the CBL-CMPS promoted ill-structured problem solving abilities respectively, and that the CBL-CMPS as a whole learning environment was effective to a degree for the transfer of learning in ill-structured problem solving. The potential, challenge, and implications of the CBL-CMPS are discussed.

信息技术中介的探究式学习环境设计

探究式学习往往是一个问题解决的过程。本文围绕着问题解决学习所需的支撑性要素,从活动理论和情境认知学习理论的视角分别对问题、相关案例、认知工具、学习共同体和资源几方面进行了论述,由此提出了一个信息技术支持下的探究式学习环境设计的基本构架。     

A preliminary discourse analysis of constructivist-oriented mathematics instruction for a student with learning disabilities

Reform efforts in mathematics education arose, in part, in response to constructivist works on conceptual learning. However, little research has examined how students with learning disabilities (LD) respond to constructivist-oriented instruction in mathematics, particularly in moment-to-moment interactions. To understand the nature of constructivist-oriented mathematics instruction involving students with LD, the authors conducted a case study to analyze teacher–student interactions during constructivist-oriented small group instruction involving a student with LD. The student demonstrated, to a certain degree, the ability to reason mathematically when provided with appropriate opportunities and prompting. However, given the limited intervention time, his reasoning and problem solving did not seem to go beyond the semiconcrete level of operation, which may have inhibited his solving of complex word problems with large numbers. Findings indicate that more efforts are needed to support students, those with LD in particular, in their transitions from concrete or semiconcrete to abstract conceptual understanding and problem solving.     

Cognitive,metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving

This article examines the role of cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational skills in problem solving. Cognitive skills include instructional objectives, components in a learning hierarchy, and components in information processing. Metacognitive skills include strategies for reading comprehension, writing, and mathematics. Motivational skills include motivation based on interest, self-efficacy, and attributions. All three kinds of skills are required for successful problem solving in academic settings.     

Metacognition and mathematical problem solving in grade 3

This article presents an overview of two studies that examined the relationship between metacognition and mathematical problem solving in 165 children with average intelligence in Grade 3 in order to help teachers and therapists gain a better understanding of contributors to successful mathematical performance. Principal components analysis on metacognition revealed that three metacognitive components (global metacognition, off-line metacognition, and attribution to effort) explained 66% to 67% of the common variance. The findings from these studies support the use of the assessment of off-line metacognition (essentially prediction and evaluation) to differentiate between average and above-average mathematical problem solvers and between students with a severe or moderate specific mathematics learning disability.     

Promoting active student learning in strength of materials with the aid of CAI

The objective of this paper is to discuss how active student learning is possible with the aid of a CAI package for a subject such as Strength of Materials. Multimedia is the latest innovation that can be utilized to improve learning. In this study, multimedia components such as hypertext, sound, graphics, video, and animation are implemented in a CAI package. These capabilities can capture students' attention, and can also illustrate the application of knowledge to real world problems more effectively than traditional teaching methods. The other features of this package include guided examples, theory, and application tests. Guided examples show the students problem solving techniques, and provide feedback according to their responses. The theory and application tests enable the teacher to gauge the students' understanding of the subject matter. Students who do well in the theory test are eligible to attempt the application test, which poses real-world engineering problems. The lesson that can be concluded from this study is that students' problem solving skills can be improved with the aid of CAI which emphasizes anchored instructions. However, to achieve maximum benefit, students also need to possess independent learning skills.     

Problem solving and transfer

Problem solving is an important yet elusive educational goal. This article briefly reviews the research on the components of problem solving and two mechanisms for fostering the transfer of problem-solving strategies--low-road transfer and high-road transfer. The interactions between these two mechanisms and two types of content (domain-specific knowledge and higher order thinking) are then discussed. Exploratory research on one of the interactions (low-road transfer of higher-order thinking) is summarized, with a particular focus on the performance of students with disabilities. Finally, some implications for curriculum and instruction are outlined.     

案例知识与复杂问题解决

人们在日常生活中需要不断地解决各种问题,正如波普尔所说"全部的生活就是问题解决"。问题解决,尤其是复杂问题的解决,已成为认知科学和学习研究中关注的焦点。复杂问题的解决是一个动态的复杂过程,需要综合运用多种认知和非认知成分。先前的研究已经提出了解决复杂问题的多种模型,给人们解决复杂问题提供了可依靠的支架。而案例知识作为一种典型性、叙事性、情境性、实践性、个人性、整体性的经验知识在问题解决中得到了广泛应用,已成为支持复杂问题解决的有效形式,具体表现为:支持问题境脉的阐释、支持问题的多视角认识、支持解决方案的生成、支持解决方案的确定以及支持对问题解决结果的评价。它正作为一种支持人们解决问题的资源,在现实中发挥越来越大的作用。     

A computer-mediated support system for project-based learning

Project-based learning places demands on learners and instructors that challenge the traditional practices and support structures of schools. Learning from doing complex, challenging, and authentic projects requires resourcefulness and planning by the student, new forms of knowledge representation in school, expanded mechanisms for collaboration and communication, and support for reflection and authentic assessment. This article describes a computer-mediated learning-support system designed as a suite of integrated, internet-based client-server tools to provide (a) intelligent support both for the processes of doing a project and for learning from doing a project, and (b) a shared dynamic knowledge base for working and learning in a community supporting project-based education. The article describes the architecture of the system, its current state of development, and findings from an initial deployment. This articulation of the system components and findings can benefit several groups. It can help (a) educators envisioning the role of technology in augmenting authentic forms of learning, (b) developers of other support systems as they compare features and implications, and (c) researchers as they frame questions about human-computer interactions in learning systems.     

Toward a design theory of problem solving

Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes. In this article, I describe differences among problems in terms of their structuredness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly describe a variety of individual differences (factors internal to the problem solver) that affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a typology of problems, each type of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative processes and therefore necessitates different instructional support. The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering a definitive answer regarding its processes. This paper represents an effort to introduce issues and concerns related to problem solving to the instructional design community. I do not presume that the community is ignorant of problem solving or its literature, only that too little effort has been expended by the field in articulating design models for problem solving. There are many reasons for that state of affairs. The curse of any introductory paper is the lack of depth in the treatment of these issues. To explicate each of the issues raised in this paper would require a book (which is forthcoming), which makes it unpublishable in a journal. My purpose here is to introduce these issues in order to stimulate discussion, research, and development of problem-solving instruction that will help us to articulate better design models.     

Problem solving in mathematics: the significance of visualisation and related working memory

The importance of educational psychologists’ (EPs’) skills to the formulation of evidence-based educational strategies, as well as in response to learning difficulties, is demonstrated here in relation to mathematical problem solving. Initiatives to improve the link between mathematical skills from school to everyday life have drawn significantly on problem solving tasks. Through critical evaluation of research, the relevance of visualisation methods and working memory to problem solving is considered within this article. Studies suggest that differences exist in the effectiveness of particular visualisation methods, but that training can improve their utility and thereby problem solving performance. Additionally, differences between individuals and contexts can influence visualisation use, and some pupils experience specific difficulties in this area. Recommendations are made to enhance the teaching of visualisation as a strategy for problem solving, and to support those pupils with specific difficulties.     

Design and usability assessment of a dialogue‐based cognitive tutoring system to model expert problem solving in research design

Technology provides the means to create useful learning and practice environments for learners. Well‐designed cognitive tutor systems, for example, can provide appropriate learning environments that feature cognitive supports (ie, scaffolding) for students to increase their procedural knowledge. The purpose of this study was to conduct a series of usability tests of a dialogue‐based design framework for the presentation of domain knowledge and assess how it can be used to actively engage learners in learning about research methods. Three formal usability assessments and an instructor adoption assessment were conducted during the development of the tutoring system. Each usability assessment employed diverse data collection methods to ensure broad and in‐depth coverage of findings. The findings revealed that the dialogue metaphor enabled natural and participatory interactions between the system and users. The feedback prompts or hints and support resources provided opportunities for learning during the process of problem solving. Future research to extend the support of usability assessments is also discussed.     

Consultation With Professional Peers: A National Survey of the Practices of School Psychologists

There is an increasing need for education professionals to keep abreast of new research and developments in their fields. The peer support group, which is characterized by the sharing of expertise and knowledge, the provision of mutual support, and joint problem solving among professional colleagues, has been advanced as promising means of promoting professional growth and development. This article reports the results of an exploratory national survey of school psychologists' involvement in peer support groups (PSGs) that was undertaken to identify the potential contributions of such activities to improving professional practice. Nearly 64% of the respondents indicated involvement in a PSG at some point in their careers, with almost 50% currently participating in one. Several benefits were attributed to group membership, and it was suggested that further research efforts are needed to clarify the essential components that contribute to group effectiveness.     

Consultation With Professional Peers: A National Survey of the Practices of School Psychologists

There is an increasing need for education professionals to keep abreast of new research and developments in their fields. The peer support group, which is characterized by the sharing of expertise and knowledge, the provision of mutual support, and joint problem solving among professional colleagues, has been advanced as promising means of promoting professional growth and development. This article reports the results of an exploratory national survey of school psychologists' involvement in peer support groups (PSGs) that was undertaken to identify the potential contributions of such activities to improving professional practice. Nearly 64% of the respondents indicated involvement in a PSG at some point in their careers, with almost 50% currently participating in one. Several benefits were attributed to group membership, and it was suggested that further research efforts are needed to clarify the essential components that contribute to group effectiveness.     

Case-based reasoning and instructional design: Using stories to support problem solving

With an increased emphasis on problem solving and problem-based learning in the instructional design field, new methods for task analysis and models for designing instruction are needed. An important methodology for both entails the elicitation, analysis, and inclusion of stories as a primary form of instructional support while learning to solve problems. Stories are the most natural and powerful formalism for storing and describing experiential knowledge that is essential to problem solving. The rationale and means for analyzing, organizing, and presenting stories to support problem solving are defined by case-based reasoning. Problems are solved by retrieving similar past experiences in the form of stories and applying the lessons learned from those stories to the new problems. In this paper, after justifying the use of stories as instructional supports, we describe methods for eliciting, indexing, and making stories available as instructional support for learning to solve problems.