Individual differences in an English learning achievement system: gaming flow experience,gender differences and learning motivation

Despite the growing interest in digital game-based learning (DGBL), there has been a lack of attention paid to the effects of individual differences, such as gaming flow experience and gender differences, in a reward-based achievement system. To this end, this study developed an achievement system with a reward mechanism to facilitate English learning. This study investigated how individuals’ gaming flow experience levels affected their levels of learning motivation, and whether any gender differences existed in gaming flow experience and learning motivation while engaging in the achievement system. The results showed that gaming flow experience significantly predicted learning motivation, whereby the students with high gaming flow experience were six times more likely to have high learning motivation than those with low gaming flow experience. Subsequent analysis showed that the female students had significantly higher gaming flow than the male students, but the male and female students showed similar learning motivation. Furthermore, the results indicated that the male students achieved more interactive rewards than the female students, but no significant differences were found in the male and female students’ achievement of other types of rewards. Based on these findings, the authors contribute to the literature by developing a framework which can be applied to support designers to accommodate individual differences in DGBL.     

Exploring the relevance of single‐gender group formation: What we learn from a massive open online course (MOOC)

This paper reports the results of an exploratory study on participants’ perception of the importance of single‐gender grouping in a massive open online course (MOOC) delivered through the Coursera platform. Findings reveal that female and male learners’ perception of single‐gender grouping differs. Female students more than males indicated less preference for single‐gender grouping. Views on single‐gender grouping also differed across regions, suggesting the effect of participants’ regions of origin on their opinions about single‐gender grouping. Moreover, an interaction was established between participants’ region and gender. In particular, our study reveals that men in the “Asia and Pacific” region tended—more than men and women from other regions of the world—to give more importance to single‐gender grouping in this MOOC. In addition, younger participants cared less about single‐gender groups compared to older respondents. This study sheds light on our understanding of the importance of gender and age importance in online learning environments such as MOOCs. The findings also point to the role gender and age may play as MOOCs continue to gain in popularity and to adopt collaborative approaches to teaching and learning.     

Socio‐demographic factors relating to perception and use of mobile technologies in tertiary teaching

In 2014, we investigated how socio‐demographic factors such as gender, teaching disciplines, teaching experience and academic seniority were related to the perception and use of digital mobile technologies in learning and teaching of a group of university teachers from one research‐intensive university in New Zealand. Three hundred and eight teachers from this university completed an online questionnaire and 30 of them participated in a follow‐up interview. Survey results showed that while there was a strong positive correlation between using mobile technologies for personal learning and their use in teaching, only a small number of participants utilised mobile technologies in their learning and the vast majority also did not use these technologies in their teaching, More female teachers and humanities teachers used mobile devices and applications more frequently than male teachers and teachers from other academic disciplines. Also, female teachers had a more positive perception in learning and using mobile technologies. Junior teachers also tended to be more positive in technology use. While the overwhelming majority of the interview participants also perceived positive benefits of incorporating mobile devices and applications into their teaching, it was found that female teachers paid greater attention to pedagogy when considering mobile technology use and the lack of professional development limited their use in teaching.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TAIWANESE ADOLESCENTS' MATHEMATICS ATTITUDES AND THEIR PERCEPTIONS TOWARD VIRTUAL MANIPULATIVES

This study explored gender differences in the relationship between young people's mathematics attitudes and their perceptions toward virtual manipulatives. Seven hundred eighty junior high school adolescents who participated in the problem-solving activity using virtual manipulatives were selected for examination. The study found the male adolescents' views on motivation and enjoyment of mathematics could explain many aspects of their perceptions toward virtual manipulatives. The female adolescents' views on the importance of mathematics and freedom from fear of mathematics could explain many aspects of their perceptions toward virtual manipulatives. However, motivation, enjoyment, and importance of mathematics were more prominent than freedom from fear of mathematics in predicting male adolescents' perceptions toward virtual manipulatives, and freedom from fear and importance of mathematics were more prominent than enjoyment and motivation of mathematics in predicting female adolescents' perceptions toward virtual manipulatives. Two implications can be drawn from this study. First, teachers could provide males with appealing problem contexts not only to be used to remove the fear of mathematics, but also to be used for enjoyment and as motivation to see the importance of mathematics. Then male students could be encouraged to have more confirmed positive perceptions toward virtual manipulatives when engaging in the activities of computer-based mathematics. Second, teachers could provide females with interesting teaching activities, not only to be used for motivation and the enjoyment of mathematics, but also to be used to remove the fear of mathematics and for experiencing the importance of mathematics. Then female students could have positive perceptions toward virtual manipulatives when technology was integrated into the classroom to enhance learning and to support effective mathematics teaching.     

The Use of Immersive Virtual Reality in the Learning Sciences: Digital Transformations of Teachers,Students, and Social Context

This article illustrates the utility of using virtual environments to transform social interaction via behavior and context, with the goal of improving learning in digital environments. We first describe the technology and theories behind virtual environments and then report data from 4 empirical studies. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that teachers with augmented social perception (i.e., receiving visual warnings alerting them to students not receiving enough teacher eye gaze) were able to spread their attention more equally among students than teachers without augmented perception. In Experiments 2 and 3, we demonstrated that by breaking the rules of spatial proximity that exist in physical space, students can learn more by being in the center of the teacher's field of view (compared to the periphery) and by being closer to the teacher (compared to farther away). In Experiment 4, we demonstrated that inserting virtual co-learners who were either model students or distracting students changed the learning abilities of experiment participants who conformed to the virtual co-learners. Results suggest that virtual environments will have a unique ability to alter the social dynamics of learning environments via transformed social interaction.     

酒店女性管理者职业生涯规划的影响因素分析——以广州市高星级酒店为例

现代女性越来越多投身于个人职业发展中,其职业生涯规划意义重大。国内外有关女性职业发展的研究已有丰富的理论基础,但理论分析较多,实证研究成果相对匮乏。高星级酒店的女性管理者职业生涯规划的影响因素分析具有较为重要的理论意义和实践价值。首先,通过文献研究和问卷调查确定女性职业生涯规划的影响因素,并选取某高星级酒店作为案例,通过深度访谈具体分析各影响因子的具体表现。结果显示：影响酒店女性管理者职业生涯规划的因素主要有社会因素、个人因素、家庭因素和组织因素。社会因素是一种宏观背景;个人因素贯穿女性管理者职业生涯规划的始终,是职业生涯规划的基础;家庭因素对酒店女性管理者婚后和生育后的职业生涯规划产生重要影响,其中家庭责任的影响具有两面性,而来自长辈和丈夫的家庭支持能促进其职业生涯规划的可持续发展;组织因素属于外部客观的影响因素,酒店和谐的工作环境和完善的福利制度,对其职业生涯规划起到积极的推动作用。     

Gender differences in reading: Examining text-based interest in relation to text characteristics and reading comprehension

Reading is a key competence for knowledge acquisition and learning processes. One important source of reading motivation is interest. Even though students' text-based interest often differs by gender, it remains unclear which text factors underlie these differences and whether text-based interest relates to reading comprehension among boys and girls. In a sample of 514 elementary students (47.2% girls), this study examined whether text topic, protagonists' gender, and text difficulty affect boys' and girls' text-based interest and whether interest and reading comprehension are intertwined. Based on a repeated within-subject design using fourteen narrative texts, the results indicated that boys' interest was higher in texts with male-attributed topics, male protagonists, and in more difficult texts. In contrast, girls’ interest was only affected by text difficulty. Text-based interest and reading comprehension were significantly related, albeit stronger for boys than for girls. The findings are discussed regarding future implications for research and educational practice.     

英语学习动机的性别差异与融入型动机的化解

男女在生理特点和心理活动上存在着巨大的差异,这种差异导致男女在英语学习动机上的不同,从而影响了学习态度和学习策略的选择,使得男女生语言学习的效果有明显区别。融合型动机是指个人学习外语时对语言本身产生了强烈的兴趣,并希望可以融入所学语言的文化为改善大学生因性别差异造成的不良学习后果。鉴于此,在对男女大学生的语言学习动机状况进行调查的基础上,科学分析了差异存在的合理性,并利用融入型动机理论,提出激发学生的融入型动机水平的具体解决措施。     

Book Reviews

Abstract

Experiential education can be taught most effectively in the outdoors when linked to the psychological foundations of teaching and learning. These include communication, perception, arousal, and motivation. Differences are explained for both teaching and learning styles.

Experiential education is distinguished from experiential learning, and salient educational strategies are integrated into the education cycle. These include focusing, feedback and support, self-responsibility, and reflecting. The importance of debriefing or processing is stressed, and an experiential method is included enabling symbolic communication through “active reviewing.” The environment is a critical factor in this form of education. A major goal is to stimulate curiosity and self-motivation. Structuring traditional and experiential methods, “grasshopper teaching,” and individual and cooperative learning draw the foundations of teaching and learning together.     

智慧学习环境的设计与构建

构建适应学习者个性需求的学习环境是实现学与教方式变革的基础。智慧学习环境是虚拟学习环境和个人学习环境的高端形态,它可以实现虚拟环境与学习主体的深度融合,突出学习者在学习过程中的主体地位,重视教师在学习过程中的指导作用,支持学习者的社会性协作交流。智慧学习环境的构成要素包括个人学习空间、社会化学习平台、学习资源中心、课程管理系统、辅助学习工具五个模块。在智慧学习环境设计过程中要遵循先进性、实用性、个性化的原则。基于模块化面向对象的动态学习环境和社会性网络服务平台而构建的开放、真实、协作的智慧学习环境,能够支持学习者在网络环境下进行便捷、舒适、有效的个性化自主学习。     

SRL in Online Cooperative Learning: implications for pre-service teacher training

The aim of this article is to investigate the relation between self-regulated learning and online collaborative environments. Based on the study of a blended course for trainee teachers, it explores the potential of the online collaborative component of the course for the practice and development of Self-Regulated Learning. The study made use of two questionnaires, developed within the TELEPEERS European project, to evaluate the potential support to SRL provided by technology-enhanced learning environments. The results provide information about the aspects of SRL practised in our environment. These include social competences, such as communication and negotiation with tutors and peers, emotional and motivational aspects, such as keeping up motivation and maintaining and restoring a positive working attitude, and cognitive and metacognitive skills such as management of time and learning environment and reflection on learning outcomes. The study also suggests the need to consider not only the SRL of the individuals involved in the learning process, but also the SRL of the whole community, that is, the result of the mediation between individual autonomy and group collaboration.     

Student perceptions of ePortfolio integration in online courses

This study explored students’ perceptions regarding the integration of electronic portfolios (ePortfolios) in two online graduate‐level courses at a small research university in the western United States. Researchers investigated student perceptions of communication, connectedness, value, and perceived student learning through ePortfolio integration and formative peer review to support a sustained community of learning. Data was collected from 40 students with a Web‐based questionnaire and a threaded discussion forum. Results indicate ePortfolios positively impacted some students’ perception of communication, connectedness, and learning. Most participants also valued ePortfolios. Prior ePortfolio experience and gender were responsible for minor differences in student perceptions, whereas lack of prior reflective experience impacted student perceptions significantly. Researchers conclude that ePortfolios can foster learning communities in online graduate programs.     

Social Presence in Synchronous Virtual Learning Situations: The Role of Nonverbal Signals Displayed by Avatars

Social factors play an important role in determining whether instructional communication in computer-supported settings will be successful. Social presence is a social factor, specifically addressing the feeling of being present with another person in a virtual environment. This article describes possibilities to influence the feeling of social presence in synchronous learning scenarios using desktop collaborative virtual environments (CVEs). Desktop CVEs are technically simple compared with immersive CVEs and can be adapted according to the needs of the users. In this article, possible adaptations are described using the example of the desktop CVE virtual team room. In CVEs, users are represented as avatars. Avatars may or may not convey nonverbal signals. The focus of the article is on whether the actual use of nonverbal signals can affect the sense of social presence and thus help to establish and maintain the learner's motivation and provide support for structuring social interaction in learning situations. The paper provides a review of exploratory studies and experiments as well as a report on the author's own studies. Future research questions concerning learning in CVEs are discussed.     

Individual differences in English Learning Strategies

Some learners’ personal factors, such as gender, major, motivation and language proficiency, influence the use of language learn- ing strategies. This paper reports the results of a survey study which investigates the individual differences and the employment of English learning strategies, examines the association between enjoyment and strategy use, motivation and strategy use, gender and strategy use, major and strategy use, English proficiency and strategy use.     

基于ARCS的分布式虚拟教学中学习动机设计探究

随着高性能的信息处理和通信技术的发展,国家信息基础设施逐步完善,基于互联网的虚拟文化环境也不断发展,融入建构主义理论的分布式虚拟学习社区为人们提供了更好的情境化学习环境,而参与者在这种环境中获取和传送信息的兴趣和动机直接决定了学习者在分布式虚拟学习社区中的学习效果。因此,如何有效利用动机设计模型设计与激励学习动机就显得十分重要。本文在系统的ARCS动机设计模型基础上探讨了分布式虚拟学习社区中学习动机的设计过程,构建了分布式虚拟学习社区中ARCS的应用模型,提出了基于模型的动机激励和维持策略,以期为分布式虚拟学习社区中教与学的有效开展提供支持。     

The role of affective and motivational factors in designing personalized learning environments

In this paper, guidelines for designing virtual change agents (VCAs) are proposed to support students?? affective and motivational needs in order to promote personalized learning in online remedial mathematics courses. Automated, dynamic, and personalized support is emphasized in the guidelines through maximizing interactions between VCAs and individual students. The strategies that VCAs convey throughout the interactions are constructed to support emotion regulation and motivation based on theories and prior research on emotions and motivation. The availability and customizability of VCAs enable the strategies to be implemented in real-time and customized for individual students. Implications of the design guidelines for personalized, online learning contexts are discussed and future research directions are recommended as well.     

The design of motivational agents and avatars

While the addition of an anthropomorphic interface agent to a learning system generally has little direct impact on learning, it potentially has a huge impact on learner motivation. As such agents become increasingly ubiquitous on the Internet, in virtual worlds, and as interfaces for learning and gaming systems, it is important to design them to optimally impact motivation. The focus of this paper is on the design of agents and avatars (one’s self-representation as a visual agent) for enhancing motivational and affective outcomes, such as improving self-efficacy, engagement and satisfaction, moderating frustration, and/or improving stereotypes. Together with motivational messages and dialogue (which are not discussed here), the agent’s appearance is the most important design feature as it dictates the learner’s perception of the agent as a virtual social model, in the Bandurian sense. The message delivery, through a human-like voice with appropriate and relevant emotional expressions, is also a key motivational design feature. More research is needed to determine the specifics with respect to the ideal agent voice and the role of other nonverbal communication (e.g., deictic gestures) that may contribute to the agent’s role as an embodied motivator, particularly in the long-term.     

A comparative analysis of e-mail and face-to-face communication in an educational environment

Electronic mail (e-mail) is an extremely important medium for Internet-based education. Due to its unique characteristics, there is reason to be concerned that students do not put appropriate care into writing messages that are sent via e-mail. This has significant implications for the effectiveness of online learning environments. This paper describes an empirical research project to investigate the amount of thought students put into e-mail communication versus traditional face-to-face communication. A survey was administered to 596 undergraduates. The results of this survey indicate that students put significantly more thought into e-mail communication with the instructor and groups of peers than they do for equivalent face-to-face communication. At the same time, students tend to put about the same amount of thought into e-mail compared to verbal communication with individual peers. Finally, the research uncovered some interesting patterns concerning student gender and technology comfort as predictors of thought put into e-mail communication.     

Personal and Contextual Influences on Township School Learners’ Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning

Learners’ self-regulation, which includes motivational variables, is influenced by personal variables within learners themselves, as well as by contextual factors. A great deal of research has focused on personal variables in learners that influence their self-regulated behaviours; yet contextual influences that operate outside of formal schooling of township school learners, although generally acknowledged, remain under-researched. The research presented in this paper explored 14 secondary township school teachers’ perceptions of the factors that influence learners’ motivation to achieve academic success. A better understanding of contextual motivational factors could influence teaching and learning, as well as provide the needed support that ultimately will enhance the academic achievement of South African township school learners. Participants perceived autonomy-supportive, extrinsic motivation, schools as positive learning environments, study and job opportunities, community projects, friends and peers, poverty, and encouragement from the local community as strong sources of motivation.     

Collaboration modality, cognitive load, and science inquiry learning in virtual inquiry environments

Educational multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) have been shown to be effective platforms for situated science inquiry curricula. While researchers find MUVEs to be supportive of collaborative scientific inquiry processes, the complex mix of multi-modal messages present in MUVEs can lead to cognitive overload, with learners unable to effectively process the rich information encountered in virtual space. In this study, we investigated the effect of communication modality on cognitive load and science inquiry learning in students completing a science inquiry curriculum in an educational MUVE. Seventy-eight undergraduate education majors from a large southwestern university participated in this control-treatment study. Significant positive results were found for reducing cognitive load for participants communicating through voice-based chat, although this reduction was not found to influence learning outcomes. We conclude that use of voice-based communication can successfully reduce cognitive load in MUVE-based inquiry curricula.