Enhancing cricket batting skill: implications for biomechanics and skill acquisition research and practice

This review synthesises the biomechanical and skill acquisition/sport expertise literature focused on the skill of cricket batting. The literature is briefly reviewed and the major limitations, challenges, and suggested future research directions are outlined. This is designed to stimulate researchers to enhance the understanding of cricket batting biomechanics and skill acquisition and in turn assist cricket coaches develop efficacious batting skill development programmes. An interdisciplinary approach between biomechanists and skill acquisition specialists is advocated to further knowledge of the underlying processes and mechanisms of cricket batting expertise. Issues such as skill measurement, practice design, ball machines, skill transfer, the impact of Twenty/20 cricket, video simulation, and skill decomposition are discussed. The ProBatter ball machine systems are introduced along with suggestions for best practice approaches for coaches when designing batting skill development programmes.     

Decision training: The effects of complex instruction,variable practice and reduced delayed feedback on the acquisition and transfer of a motor skill

Novice, intermediate and advanced baseball hitters followed a 7–week training programme, in which they received either behavioural training or decision training. Participants in the behavioural training group received simple-to-complex instruction, variable practice and an abundance of feedback throughout the acquisition period; the decision training group received complex instruction, variable practice and reduced delayed feedback. As predicted, the intermediate and advanced hitters who received decision training hit at a lower level (%) during acquisition but at a higher level during a transfer test in week 7. Novices in the behavioural training group were better than novices in the decision training group over both acquisition and transfer trials.     

Decision training: the effects of complex instruction, variable practice and reduced delayed feedback on the acquisition and transfer of a motor skill.

Novice, intermediate and advanced baseball hitters followed a 7-week training programme, in which they received either behavioural training or decision training. Participants in the behavioural training group received simple-to-complex instruction, variable practice and an abundance of feedback throughout the acquisition period; the decision training group received complex instruction, variable practice and reduced delayed feedback. As predicted, the intermediate and advanced hitters who received decision training hit at a lower level (%) during acquisition but at a higher level during a transfer test in week 7. Novices in the behavioural training group were better than novices in the decision training group over both acquisition and transfer trials.     

运动技能习得的系统理论及教学运用研究

运用系统科学、人—机—环境工程理论和相关学科理论对运动技能形成过程进行了探讨,揭示了运动技能从微观到宏观演变形成的过程及其状态特征,以及运动技能系统演变过程的调控机制。     

Self-controlled amount of practice benefits learning of a motor skill

Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g, feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.     

Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition

We examined the effectiveness of different cueing conditions during observational learning of a soccer accuracy pass. Sixty participants (30 males, 30 females) were randomly assigned and stratified by sex into one of six groups: discovery learning, verbal instruction, video model with visual cues, video model with verbal cues, video model with visual and verbal cues, and video model only. Each participant completed eight blocks of 10 trials each, with trial blocks 1 and 2 representing the practice phase (no manipulation), trial blocks 3, 4, 5 and 6 the acquisition phase (manipulation administered) and trial blocks 7 and 8 the retention phase (24 h after acquisition, with no manipulation). Absolute error, variable error and kicking form were recorded. The results indicated that those who used video modelling with visual and verbal cues collectively displayed less error and more appropriate form across acquisition and retention trial blocks compared with other groups. Our findings suggest that verbal information in addition to visual cues enhances perceptual representation and retention of modelled activities to improve task reproduction capabilities. Future research directions are proposed with implications for both direct and indirect perception accounts of skill acquisition through observed behaviours.     

The effect of self-regulated and experimenter-imposed practice schedules on motor learning for tasks of varying difficulty

Research suggests that allowing individuals to control their own practice schedule has a positive effect on motor learning. In this experiment we examined the effect of task difficulty and self-regulated practice strategies on motor learning. The task was to move a mouse-operated cursor through pattern arrays that differed in two levels of difficulty. Participants learned either four easy or hard patterns after assignment to one of four groups that ordered practice in blocked, random, self-regulated, and yoked-to-self-regulated schedules. Although self-regulation provided no special benefit in acquisition, these groups showed the most improved performance in retention, irrespective of task difficulty. Although individual switch strategies for members of the self-regulated groups were quite variable, the impact of self-regulation on motor learning remained similar. These findings add to the growing body of literature suggesting that self-regulated practice is an important variable for motor learning.     

Part and whole practice: chunking and online control in the acquisition of a serial motor task

A four-component aiming movement was used to examine the relative effectiveness of part and whole practice. Following a pretest, participants were assigned to one of three practice groups. Participants in a "Whole" group practiced the four components together as a unit. A "No Overlap" group practiced the first two and last two components of the task, alternating every fifth trial. An "Overlap" group practiced the transition between the second and third components on every trial by alternating practice of the first three and last three components every five trials. Participants in all groups improved significantly from pretest to immediate posttest and maintained their performance over a 24-hr delay. Contrary to the "chunking hypothesis," participants in the No Overlap group improved as much as those in the other two groups. Kinematic data indicated that participants in all three groups learned to use response-produced feedback earlier in the individual movement trajectories. Moreover, participants appeared to acquire a general ability to make transitions between movement components rather than specific transitions. The results suggest that segmented or segmented "overlap" practice regimes may benefit learning movement sequences of short duration.     

Manipulating visual informational constraints during practice enhances the acquisition of catching skill in children.

Previous motor learning studies examining the effects of practicing to catch one-handed under varying informational constraints on subsequent skill acquisition are equivocal, perhaps due to the use of relatively inexperienced adult participants. Ecological theory predicts that directing the learner's search for information in the perceptual-motor workspace can enhance skill acquisition. This study manipulated visual informational constraints on novice children (ages 9-10 years) learning to catch one-handed. A crossover transfer design was implemented in which one group acted as controls while two other groups practiced either without visual restrictions before transferring to full vision, or vice versa. The data indicated that learners forced to seek additional information sources under restricted viewing conditions demonstrated a greater positive, accumulative residual effect on acquiring a catching skill. The findings contradict current work on the specificity of practice hypothesis and suggest that varying visual informational constraints to encourage exploratory practice may represent a significant pedagogical approach to motor learning in sport.     

Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: challenging tradition

The acquisition of soccer skills is fundamental to our enjoyment of the game and is essential to the attainment of expertise. Players spend most of their time in practice with the intention of improving technical skills. However, there is a lack of scientific research relating to the effective acquisition of soccer skills, especially when compared with the extensive research base on physiological aspects of performance. Current coaching practice is therefore based on tradition, intuition and emulation rather than empirical evidence. The aim of this review is to question some of the popular beliefs that guide current practice and instruction in soccer. Empirical evidence is presented to dispel many of these beliefs as myths, thereby challenging coaches to self-reflect and critically evaluate contemporary doctrine. The review should inform sports scientists and practitioners as to the important role that those interested in skill acquisition can play in enhancing performance at all levels of the game.     

Summary and frequency of KR presentation effects on retention of a motor skill

This experiment investigates the recent proposal of Schmidt, Young, Swinnen, and Shapiro (1989) that summary knowledge of results (KR) improves skill retention. In Schmidt et al.'s experiment, however, summary length varied concomitantly with the frequency of KR presentation. The current investigation held KR presentation frequency constant while manipulating the number of trials seen in the summary KR display. Subjects were required to perform a timing task on a linear slide. Five groups (n = 12) of subjects participated in acquisition trials then in 10-min and 2-day delayed no-KR retention tests. In 4 conditions, subjects completed each acquisition block without any KR, but following each block they received KR on either 15, 7, 3, or 1 of the 15 trials performed in that block. In the final condition subjects received immediate KR. Analysis of the absolute constant error (magnitude of CE) data for acquisition revealed all groups improved with practice and the immediate KR group performed better than all the summary groups which in turn did not differ significantly. Analysis of the magnitude of CE retention data found performance to be worse on the 2-day retention test for all groups. The effect of condition was significant. The 1/1 group had lower error scores than all other groups, which in turn were not significantly different. Analyses of variable error (VE) revealed only that VE decreased with practice. These findings suggest frequency of KR presentation may be the basis for the summary KR effect found by Schmidt et al. (1989).     

The effects of augmented kinematic feedback on motor skill learning in rifle shooting

In this study, we examined the effects of augmented kinematic knowledge of performance (KP) on shooting performance and learning. Knowledge of performance described the aiming trajectory of the rifle barrel. The effects of knowledge of performance were evaluated in terms of shooting accuracy (shooting score), variability of the shooting score (root mean square error) and rifle stability (x- and y-deviation of rifle movement). The participants (n = 40) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: no-KP, 50% KP, 100% KP and a control group. The three experimental groups performed 480 shots during a 4 week acquisition phase in which feedback was provided. No-feedback retention tests were administered at 2 and 10 days after acquisition. There were no differences between groups during acquisition. In the 2 day retention test, the mean shooting score of the group receiving 100% knowledge of performance was significantly higher than that of the other groups. Furthermore, variability in shooting score for the 100% KP group was lower than that for the 50% KP and control groups. No significant differences were found in rifle stability between the experimental groups. In summary, a high frequency of kinematic knowledge of performance improved shooting accuracy, but the effect appeared to be temporal, disappearing in the 10 day retention test. Given that a parallel effect was not found in rifle stability, future research should focus on examining the reasons for this improvement in shooting score.     

The effects of a single reminder trial on retention of a motor skill

Two experiments investigated the effects of a single reminder trial on immediate and delayed retention. Experiment 1 determined if beneficial effects of a reminder trial were a function of task order immediate retention performance benefited only when the reminder trial was practiced in the first block of trials. Experiment 2 added a 24-hr delayed retention test to examine the long-term benefits of a reminder trial. Retention performance was enhanced over both delay intervals. The long-term effect extended previous research (Shea & Titzer, 1993) that documented effects after 10 min. The use of a single reminder trial established that intertask comparisons between multiple reminder trials were not a precondition for the reminder trial effect as postulated by Shea and Titzer.     

运动技能迁移原理在标枪技术训练中的运用

运动技能的迁移是指学习掌握专项技术动作的过程中 ,对所学的另一种运动项目技术动作之间所产生的积极影响。少年、儿童时期是学习基本技术动作的有利时期 ,而且所掌握的基本技术动作将为今后学习专项技术动作打下一定的基础。例如我们少体校招收的投掷项目的运动员 ,大都在入校前已经初步掌握了垒球的投掷技术 ,在入校后需要学习掌握投掷标枪技术。这时就可以充分利用运动技能中的正迁移原理 ,提高他们学习掌握投掷标枪技术的训练效果。在教学训练过程中首先应找出投掷垒球技术与投掷标枪技术的共性 ,利用它们在技术上的共性 ,为学习标枪技…     

Age-related differences in vision and proprioception in a lower limb interceptive task: the effects of skill level and practice

This study examined age-related differences in the role of visual proprioception during a lower limb interceptive action and how this varies as a function of skill and practice. In Experiment 1, skilled and less-skilled 8-, 10-, and 12-year-old boys controlled a soccer ball using their preferred foot under full vision and when sight of the effector was occluded. With the exception of the high-skilled 12-year-olds and low-skilled 8-year-olds, participants showed a decrement in peformance when denied access to visual proprioception. In Experiment 2, the effect of practicing under different informational constraints was examined for 12 year-old boys. Children performed varying amounts of practice under full vision, or in a condition where sight of the foot was occluded, before being transferred to the alternative viewing condition. Participants who practiced under occluded viewing conditions showed greater relative improvement in performance over practice and transfer sessions compared with a full vision control group. Some support is provided for the manipulation of visual informational constraints as an effective pedagogical approach to motor learning.     

Understanding and measuring coordination and control in kicking skills in soccer: implications for talent identification and skill acquisition

In this review, we explore the role of motor control and biomechanics in developing an understanding of soccer skills using kicking as the main vehicle. The links between these sub-disciplines of sport science have not been well established in the past because of an emphasis on cognitive processes in traditional accounts of motor behaviour. We argue that a dynamical systems interpretation of the processes of coordination and control in movements with multiple degrees of freedom signals a new era in the relationship between the sub-disciplines of motor control and biomechanics. Although research on coordination and control of soccer skills is currently sparse, there are indications that the relationship between motor control and biomechanics could form a significant component of scientific programmes in talent identification and skill development. Further interdisciplinary work is needed to enhance understanding of coordination and control of soccer skills.     

Understanding and measuring coordination and control in kicking skills in soccer: Implications for talent identification and skill acquisition

In this review, we explore the role of motor control and biomechanics in developing an understanding of soccer skills using kicking as the main vehicle. The links between these sub-disciplines of sport science have not been well established in the past because of an emphasis on cognitive processes in traditional accounts of motor behaviour. We argue that a dynamical systems interpretation of the processes of coordination and control in movements with multiple degrees of freedom signals a new era in the relationship between the sub-disciplines of motor control and biomechanics. Although research on coordination and control of soccer skills is currently sparse, there are indications that the relationship between motor control and biomechanics could form a significant component of scientific programmes in talent identification and skill development. Further interdisciplinary work is needed to enhance understanding of coordination and control of soccer skills.     

Learning from the experts: gaining insights into best practice during the acquisition of three novel motor skills

The amount and quality of practice predicts expertise, yet optimal conditions of practice have primarily been explored with novice learners. Ten expert musicians and ten novices practiced disc-throwing skills under self-regulated conditions. A third novice group practiced with the same schedule as the music experts (yoked). The groups did not differ in terms of the amount of contextual interference, only in terms of when in-practice interference was introduced. The music experts progressed from a more blocked to random schedule which was opposite to the novices. This resulted in more accurate performance in retention for the experts in comparison to both novice groups (self-scheduled and yoked). The music expert and yoked groups showed higher form scores than the novice self-scheduled group, which might be related to the greater frequency of augmented information for these groups. There was no evidence that non-task-domain experts choose a more random practice schedule than novices, but in accord with good practice principles, they gradually introduced high amounts of interference into their practice. This strategy was associated with less error in retention for the experts. Because the yoked group showed more error than the music experts, the advantage of this schedule was also performance dependent.     

Mental preparation, mental practice and strength tasks: a need for clarification

Mental preparation has long been thought of as an important aspect of physical performance, especially in tasks requiring muscular strength. Recent studies in sport psychology have addressed this issue, mainly through the investigation of 'psych-up' strategies and effects. The overall trend in such experiments supports the use of mental preparation strategies for strength tasks, but the evidence is less clear for other types of activities. A recent review on mental practice by Feltz and Landers (1983) employed a 'meta-analysis' technique to analyse the statistical trends in 60 studies of mental practice. They compared the 'effect sizes' for mental practice on cognitive, motor and strength tasks and reported a significantly larger effect size for cognitive tasks than for the others and only a small effect size for strength tasks. This suggests that mental practice is less effective in strength activities and thus appears to question the evidence reported in the 'psych-up' literature. This paper proposes, therefore, that a distinction is necessary between mental preparation and mental practice in order to clarify the findings. Future experiments and reviews must address the issue of distinguishing between types of mental strategies and types of tasks in both practice and preparation.     

Observation interventions for motor skill learning and performance: an applied model for the use of observation

Using the 5 Ws and 1 H journalistic approach of Beveridge Mackie (2011), we reviewed the observation intervention research that targeted sport skills or daily movement tasks. Through this review, it became apparent that while there is much research that examines observation of a live or video (what), skilled model (who) for enhanced skill learning (why) in laboratory settings (where), there is a need for not only a wider scope of research, but also a deeper one. Following the review of literature, an applied model for the use of observation is advanced. Through this applied model, we propose that practitioners should first assess the observer's characteristics and the task characteristics for which any observation intervention is being created. The practitioner should then gain an understanding of the context and the desired outcomes of the learner and use this advance information to vary the characteristics of: (1) who is observed; (2) what is observed and what instructional features will accompany the intervention; (3) when it is observed; and (4) how the observed information should be delivered. Future research directions are also forwarded with regard to identified gaps in the literature.