A Guide for Studying the Personality of a Young Child

Five methods for analyzing data arising from research involving pretests and posttests are considered. These methods include: (1) posttest analysis only; (2) analysis of raw gain scores (posttest minus pretest); (3) analysis of the data with a pretest-posttest factor included in the statistical model; (4) analysis of posttest data with pretests as a covariate, and (5) analysis of gain scores with pretests as a covariate. The characteristics of each are discussed, with a conclusion that the fifth method is superior to the others when the assumptions underlying covariance analysis are met.     

Conceptions of natural selection: a snapshot of the sense-making process

Several studies have examined the alternative conceptions that students possess about the process of natural selection. The goal of this study was to explore the nature of the changes in students' explanations of evolutionary scenarios. Fifty names were randomly selected from a pool of over 200 high school students who took a pretest prior to and a posttest following instruction about evolution. Teleological and Lamarckian explanations accounted for over half of the students' explanation on the pretest, but dropped to less than 20% on the posttest. Most of the students that, on the pretest, attributed evolutionary change to individual need for a trait or extended use or disuse of some part of the body shifted, on the posttest, to explanations that described the role of a population's variation to the evolutionary process. Explanations that included the idea of spontaneous genetic mutations increased, but this totalled less than 10% of all posttest responses.     

Using the retrospective pretest to get usable,indirect evidence of student learning

Minimal evidence exists regarding the retrospective pretest’s effectiveness as a tool to obtain usable, indirect evidence of student learning in open admissions institutions. The researcher conducted this study to determine if a retrospective pretest more accurately detected a change in students’ knowledge compared to a conventional pretest–posttest. The researcher designed a 17‐item inventory covering course objectives, and students were randomly assigned to either a retrospective pretest (referred to as post‐then) or a conventional pretest–posttest group. Findings indicated that participants in the post‐then group reported a greater change in knowledge compared to the conventional group. This finding supported the use of the retrospective pretest as a tool for getting usable, indirect evidence of student learning. Future research needs to examine response effect, alternative ways of calculating treatment effect and the confounding influences of other perceptual variables.     

Validity of a Residualized Dependent Variable After Pretest Covariance Adjustments: Still the Same Variable?

The authors empirically examined whether the validity of a residualized dependent variable after covariance adjustment is comparable to that of the original variable of interest. When variance of a dependent variable is removed as a result of one or more covariates, the residual variance may not reflect the same meaning. Using the pretest–posttest design as a general framework, the authors compared the nomological validity network for the (a) original dependent variable scores and (b) residualized dependent variable scores after having covaried-out variance explainable by a pretest. Heuristic and empirical examples are provided that demonstrate potential variation in construct validity of residualized dependent variables is a function of correlations among dependent, covariate, and validity variables.     

The Effects on Retention of Programed Classroom Reviews

Abstract

A group of 150 high-school students were taught introductory vector geometry by either programmed instruction or conventional teacher-directed methods. A measure of anxiety was taken for all subjects; also pretest and posttest measures of competence in vector geometry. Otis-Gamma scores were used to index intelligence. A significant negative correlation was observed between the total group anxiety level and Otis-Gamma scores. The correlations of the individual mode of instruction groups to Otis-Gamma scores were not significantly different from each other. Analysis of Covariance indicated no significant relationship between mode of instruction and learning; level of anxiety and learning; and learning and interaction of anxiety and mode of instruction. Trends were observed that indicate that more experimentation with larger populations and longer periods of instruction by programmed learning devices might prove fruitful.     

Direct and Extended Vocabulary Instruction in Kindergarten: Investigating Transfer Effects

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of an 18-week program of direct and extended vocabulary instruction with kindergarten students on both proximal measures of target word knowledge and transfer measures of generalized language and literacy. A second purpose was to examine whether treatment effects would be moderated by initial receptive vocabulary knowledge measured at pretest. In a quasi-experimental design, 80 kindergarten students from schools serving large at-risk populations were taught the meanings of 54 vocabulary words within interactive story read alouds over 36 half-hour instructional lessons (2 lessons per week over 18 weeks). An additional 44 students served as a no-treatment control. Findings indicated that students who received vocabulary instruction outperformed controls on a measure of target word knowledge as well as measures of generalized receptive vocabulary and listening comprehension. In addition, initial receptive vocabulary was strongly related to posttest performance on all measures. Implications are discussed in relation to supporting vocabulary development in the early grades within a multitier framework of instruction and intervention.     

Sex-related differences in response to practice on a visual-spatial test and generalization to a related test

93 first graders (mean age 6.5 years) were given a pretest and posttest on half of the items from the Children's Embedded Figures Test. Half of the children were randomly assigned to a training condition and received a brief training procedure on visual-spatial disembedding prior to the administration of the posttest. Children in the control condition received no training. The performance of girls improved significantly more from pretest to posttest than the performance of boys. Boys and girls showed similar beneficial effects of training in addition to the benefit of direct practice. The tendency that was observed for boys to perform higher than girls on the pretest, p less than .10, was not evident on the posttest. Scores on the pretest predicted scores on a different measure of visual-spatial ability only for children in the control group. The results are interpreted in terms of current theories of sex differences in visual-spatial perception.     

Experimental problem solving: An instructional improvement field experiment

An instructional program based on expert-novice differences in experimental problem-solving performance was taught to grade 6 students (N = 265). Classes of students were randomly assigned to conditions in a delayed treatment design. Performance was assessed with multiple-choice and open-ended measures of specific transfer. Between group comparisons using pretest scores as a covariate showed that treatment condition students consistently outperformed controls; similar results were revealed in the within group comparisons. The achievement of the early treatment group did not decline in tests administered one month after the posttest.     

Argumentation in a Socioscientific Context and its Influence on Fundamental and Derived Science Literacies

This study explored the effects of arguing to learn in a socioscientific context on the fundamental and derived components of reading, writing, and science understanding as integral parts of science literacy. We adopted mixed-methods in which the 1-group pretest–posttest design with supplemental interviews and questionnaires. The pretest evaluated the dependent variables (reading and writing scores), the treatment was arguing to learn about the global climate change issue, the posttest evaluated the dependent variables, and follow-up questionnaires and interviews informed the quantitative results. An intact grade six class (N = 28) at an urban elementary school located in central Taiwan was the participants. Analyses of the pretest–posttest gain scores and correlations between these outcomes revealed significant (p < 0.05) improvements in writing and associations among reading, writing, and arguing to learn. Interpretation of the qualitative data (interview and questionnaire responses) supported that argumentation as an instructional treatment focused on fundamental literacy could play a positive role in facilitating students’ enhanced science understanding (derived literacy).     

The effectiveness of a learning disabilities inservice program

Forty-three regular classroom teachers were provided with four one-hour inservice sessions related to the field of learning disabilities. Pre- and posttest administrations of the Learning Disabilities Information Inventory were utilized to measure change resulting from these sessions. Twenty-four control subjects did not participate in these sessions but did complete the dependent measure. An analysis of covariance with pretest scores serving as the covariate indicated that the inservice treatment did result in improved performance on the dependent measure. Approximately 50% of the experimental subjects completed a follow-up questionnaire and most indicated that the sessions increased their knowledge of learning disabilities and provided them with techniques and materials useful in their classroom settings. It is concluded that such inservice sessions are a viable means of increasing classroom teachers' information concerning learning disabilities and the Learning Disabilities Information Inventory is sensitive to the effects of such inservice.     

The effectiveness of advance organiser model on students’ academic achievement in learning work and energy

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the advance organiser model (AOM) on students’ academic achievement in learning work and energy. The design of the study was quasi-experimental pretest–posttest nonequivalent control groups. The total population of the study was 139 students of three sections in Endabaguna preparatory school in Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Two sections with equivalent means on the pretest were taken to participate in the study purposely and one section assigned as the experimental group and the other section assigned as the control group randomly. The experimental group was taught using the lesson plan based on the AOM, and the control group was taught using the lesson plan based on the conventional teaching method. Pretest and posttest were administered before and after the treatment, respectively. Independent sample t-test was used to analyse the data at the probability level of 0.05. The findings of the study showed that the AOM was more effective than the conventional teaching method with effect size of 0.49. This model was also effective to teach male and female students and objectives namely understanding and application. However, both methods were equally important to teach work and energy under the objective knowledge level.     

Social Acceptance,Academic Achievement,and Academic Aptitude Among High School Students

Abstract

While evaluating a project designed to improve certain skills and motivation of disadvantaged tenth graders, the authors developed a unique scoring system for measuring college interest with the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (OIS) Form DD. This system permits the user to obtain a single score which if obtained from both pretest and posttest administrations attempts to measure change in interest toward college related occupations. In effect, it is anticipated that this would reflect change in interest in pursuing a college education.     

Empirical Performance of Covariates in Education Observational Studies

This article summarizes results from 12 empirical evaluations of observational methods in education contexts. We look at the performance of three common covariate-types in observational studies where the outcome is a standardized reading or math test. They are: pretest measures, local geographic matching, and rich covariate sets with a strong theory of treatment selection. Overall, the review demonstrates that although the pretest often reduces bias in observational studies, it does not always eliminate it. Its performance depends on the pretest's correlation with treatment selection and the outcome, and whether preintervention trends are present. We also find that although local comparisons are prioritized for matching, its performance depends on whether comparable no-treatment cases are available. Otherwise, local comparisons may produce badly biased results. In cases where researchers have a strong theory of selection and rich covariate sets, observational methods perform well, but additional replication studies are needed. Finally, observational methods that rely on demographic covariates without a theory of selection rarely produce unbiased treatment effects. The article concludes by offering education researchers empirically based guidance on covariate selection in observational studies.     

Academic outcomes for students with learning disabilities in consultation and resource programs

In this study, pretest and posttest achievement test data were collected for 67 children with learning disabilities assigned to one of four conditions: one period of resource room instruction per day; two periods of resource room instruction per day; consultative services combined with in-class instruction; and consultative services to classroom teachers. Analysis of pretest achievement measures indicated that students assigned to two periods of resource room per day differed significantly from the other groups and results from this group were analyzed separately. Students in the remaining three conditions made gains in standing relative to same-age peers from pretest to posttest. Students receiving a combination of consultation and direct services showed small, but significantly greater overall gains in achievement than did students placed in the resource room.     

Effects of Early Field Experience on Student Teachers’ Self-Concepts and Performance

This research was designed to determine whether (1) selecting a pre-student teaching field-based experience brought about significant differences in secondary student teachers’ self-concepts and performance; and (2) whether self-concept scores were predictors of performance ratings. Student teachers who had selected Project Interaction (PI) and those who had no early field experience (NF) were pre-and posttested on four self-concept variables, and rated on performance by cooperating teachers, supervisors, and by self-ratings. Pretest self-concept scores were correlated with performance ratings. Results indicated the PI group had significantly more conflict on the pretest, which was reversed on the posttest to produce a trend toward significantly less conflict. The PI group had significantly higher self-esteem than the NF group on the posttest. No significant differences were found on performance ratings, but cooperating teachers’ ratings did correlate with pretest self-concept scores. It was concluded that early field experience appeared to have latent positive effects on self-concept.     

Exploring the Value Added of a Guided,Silent Reading Intervention: Effects on Struggling Third-Grade Readers’ Achievement

ABSTRACT

The authors’ purpose was to explore the effects of a supplementary, guided, silent reading intervention with 80 struggling third-grade readers who were retained at grade level as a result of poor performance on the reading portion of a criterion referenced state assessment. The students were distributed in 11 elementary schools in a large, urban school district in the state of Florida. A matched, quasi-experimental design was constructed using propensity scores for this study. Students in the guided, silent reading intervention, Reading Plus, evidenced higher, statistically significant mean scores on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test criterion assessment measure of reading at posttest. The effect size, favoring the guided, silent reading intervention group was large, 1 full standard deviation, when comparing the 2 comparison groups’ mean posttest scores. As such, the results indicate a large advantage for providing struggling third-grade readers guided silent reading fluency practice in a computer-based practice environment. No significant difference was found between the treatment and control group on the Stanford Achievement Test–10 (SAT-10) posttest scores, although posttest scores for the treatment group trended higher than the control. After conducting a power analysis, it was determined that the sample size (n = 80) was too small to provide sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in third-grade students’ SAT-10 scores.     

A meta-analysis of the RTI literature for children at risk for reading disabilities

This article synthesizes the literature comparing at-risk children designated as responders and low responders to interventions in reading. The central question addressed in this review is whether individual differences in reading-related skills at pretest predict responders at posttest across a variety of interventions and sets of criteria for determining responding and low responding. A total of 13 studies met criteria for the meta-analysis, yielding 107 weighted effect sizes (ESs) at posttest (M = .76, SE = .03, 95% confidence interval [CI] =.71, .81) and 108 weighted ESs at pretest (M = 1.02, SE = .03, CI = 1.02, 1.13). The results showed that the magnitude of ES between responders and low responders increased from pretest to posttest on measures of reading (e.g., real word identification = 1.06 vs. 1.53, word attack = 1.10 vs. 1.28, and passage comprehension, 0.45 vs. 1.43). Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that overall posttest ESs were significantly moderated by pretest scores as well as the type of measure administered, whereas no significant moderating effects were found for number of weeks of intervention, length of sessions, number of sessions, type of intervention (one-to-one vs. small group instruction), and criteria for defining responders (cutoff, scores, discrepancy, benchmark). Overall, the synthesis suggested that regardless of type of treatment and identification criteria, response-to-intervention (RTI) conditions were not effective in mitigating learner characteristics related to pretest conditions.     

Testing the Immediate and Long-Term Efficacy of a Tier 2 Kindergarten Mathematics Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study examined the efficacy of a kindergarten mathematics intervention program, ROOTS, focused on developing whole-number understanding in the areas of counting and cardinality and operations and algebraic thinking for students at risk in mathematics. The study utilized a randomized block design with students within classrooms randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions. Measures of mathematics achievement were collected in the fall (pretest) and spring (posttest) in kindergarten and in the winter of first grade (delayed posttest). Significant differences between conditions favoring treatment students were found on four of six measures at posttest. Treatment students reduced the achievement gap with their not-at-risk peers. No effect was found on follow-up first-grade achievement scores. Implications for Tier 2 mathematics instruction in a Response to Intervention model are discussed.     

A STUDY OF THE VALIDITY OF SELF-REPORTED MEASURES OF ACADEMIC GROWTH

This study was undertaken to examine the relationship between self-reported and pre-post measures of academic growth. Self-reported and pre-post measures were obtained in three areas, simple cognitive, complex cognitive, and attitudinal. The subjects were 162 graduate students enrolled in six different graduate courses. Partial correlations relating self-reported measures of growth to posttest performance on measures of achievement (simple and complex cognitive)and attitude, controlling for pretest performance indicated that self-reported measures of academic growth were primarily related to growth in attitudes toward the subject matter of a course.     

Creative and playful learning on technology-enriched playgrounds: an international investigation

The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to determine the degree that creative and playful learning (CPL) in a technology-enriched playground influences academic achievement of students and what factors are responsible for successes. The participants were 276 students from 12 elementary classrooms in the Netherlands and Finland. The research used a pretest–posttest, without control design. The dependent variable was academic achievement on teacher-created tests; the independent variable was participation in the intervention; and the control variables were pretest scores, gender, academic subjects previously studied, age, satisfaction with schooling, country of the school, and classroom within the school. The results showed that there were significant gains in academic achievement and that the pretest was the only significant predictor of posttest achievement. Other variables, including gender, academic subjects studied, age, satisfaction with schooling, country of school, and classroom, were not statistically significant predictors of posttest scores. While students’ academic achievements are only one measure of progress in the current debate about learning in the education system, this article provides insight on education through analyses of the relationships among the integration of curriculum-based learning, CPL practices, and outdoor playgrounds.