Does class-size reduction close the achievement gap? Evidence from TIMSS 2011

Policies about reducing class size have been implemented in the US and Europe in the past decades. Only a few studies have discussed the effects of class size at different levels of student achievement, and their findings have been mixed. We employ quantile regression analysis, coupled with instrumental variables, to examine the causal effects of class size on 4th-grade mathematics achievement at various quantiles. We use data from 14 European countries from the 2011 sample of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Overall, there are no systematic patterns of class-size effects across quantiles. Class-size effects are generally non-significant and uniform at different achievement levels, which suggests that in most European countries class-size reduction does not have an impact on student achievement and does not close the achievement gap. However, combined estimates across countries indicate that high achievers may benefit more from class-size reduction.     

Class size effects on reading achievement in Europe: Evidence from PIRLS

Some researchers have suggested that reducing class size may result in increases in student achievement. However, the empirical evidence about class-size effects from experimental or quasi-experimental studies has been mixed overall. This study sheds more light on whether class size reduction impacts reading achievement in eight European countries: Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. We examine class size effects on reading achievement using national probability samples of fourth graders. All eight European countries had participated in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) in 2001, 2006 and 2011. Overall, the results indicate that class size effects on reading achievement are not significant across countries and years. One exception was Romania where class size effects in 2001 and 2011 were significant and negative suggesting that reducing class size corresponded to increases in reading achievement. Trends in class size effects over time were not observed.     

Improving quality and equity in schools in socially disadvantaged areas

Background: Recent effectiveness studies have investigated the relationship between two dimensions of effectiveness – namely, quality and equity. Specifically, the question of whether effective schools can also reduce the initial differences in student outcomes attributed to student background factors has been examined. In this context, the Dynamic Approach to School Improvement (DASI) makes use of theory and the research findings of effectiveness studies to try to improve school effectiveness in terms of quality and equity.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine whether the implementation of DASI in primary schools in socially disadvantaged areas in four European countries (Cyprus, England, Greece and Ireland) was able to promote student learning outcomes in mathematics and to reduce the impact of student background factors on student achievement in mathematics.

Design and methods: A sample of 72 primary schools across the four countries was randomly split into experimental and control groups. At the beginning and at the end of the school year, mathematics tests were administered to all students of Grades 4–6 (n = 5560; student ages 9–12 years). The experimental group made use of DASI. Within-country multilevel regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention and search for interaction effects between the use of DASI and student background factors on final achievement.

Results: In each country, the experimental group achieved better results in mathematics than the control group. At the beginning of the intervention, the achievement gap based on socio-economic status (SES) was equally large in the experimental and the control groups. Only in the experimental group did the achievement gap based on SES become smaller. However, DASI was not found to have an effect on equity when the equity dimension was examined by focusing on the achievement gap based on either gender or ethnicity.

Conclusions: Implications of findings are drawn and the importance of measuring equity in terms of student achievement gaps based on different background factors, rather than only on SES, is emphasised. We propose the evaluation of the impact of interventions on promoting equity by the use of various criteria.     

School Size Effects on Achievement in Secondary Education Evidence from the Netherlands,Sweden and the USA 1

ABSTRACT

In this article the results of an investigation into the relation between school size and achievement are reported. The findings relate to mathematics achievement in Dutch, Swedish and American secondary education and to science achievement in the Netherlands. The analyses sought to provide an answer to the following questions:

(1) Is school size related to achievement independently of student background characteristics such as sex, achievement motivation, socio‐economic status and cognitive aptitude? (2) Is the effect of school size related to any of the aforementioned background characteristics? (3) Does the effect of school size on achievement differ between the educational systems of the Netherlands, Sweden and the USA? (4) Is the effect of school size the same for different measures of student achievement (mathematics versus science)?

It was hypothesized that school size would be most strongly related to achievement in the USA. The analyses, however, revealed little empirical evidence for the existence of school size effects on achievement in any of the three countries, possibly because school size and curriculum comprehensiveness are not strongly related in these countries.

Because the investigations involved the analysis of five separate datasets, the research outcomes revealed some useful additional information with respect to the robustness of the detected relations between the five covariates and student achievement.

     

Relationship between affect and achievement in science and mathematics in Malaysia and Singapore

Background : The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) assesses the quality of the teaching and learning of science and mathematics among Grades 4 and 8 students across participating countries.

Purpose : This study explored the relationship between positive affect towards science and mathematics and achievement in science and mathematics among Malaysian and Singaporean Grade 8 students.

Sample : In total, 4466 Malaysia students and 4599 Singaporean students from Grade 8 who participated in TIMSS 2007 were involved in this study.

Design and method : Students’ achievement scores on eight items in the survey instrument that were reported in TIMSS 2007 were used as the dependent variable in the analysis. Students’ scores on four items in the TIMSS 2007 survey instrument pertaining to students’ affect towards science and mathematics together with students’ gender, language spoken at home and parental education were used as the independent variables.

Results : Positive affect towards science and mathematics indicated statistically significant predictive effects on achievement in the two subjects for both Malaysian and Singaporean Grade 8 students. There were statistically significant predictive effects on mathematics achievement for the students’ gender, language spoken at home and parental education for both Malaysian and Singaporean students, with R ² = 0.18 and 0.21, respectively. However, only parental education showed statistically significant predictive effects on science achievement for both countries. For Singapore, language spoken at home also demonstrated statistically significant predictive effects on science achievement, whereas gender did not. For Malaysia, neither gender nor language spoken at home had statistically significant predictive effects on science achievement.

Conclusions : It is important for educators to consider implementing self-concept enhancement intervention programmes by incorporating ‘affect’ components of academic self-concept in order to develop students’ talents and promote academic excellence in science and mathematics.     

Class size effects on mathematics achievement in Cyprus: evidence from TIMSS

Class size reduction has been viewed as one school mechanism that can improve student achievement. Nonetheless, the literature has reported mixed findings about class size effects. We used 4th- and 8th-grade data from TIMSS 2003 and 2007 to examine the association between class size and mathematics achievement in public schools in Cyprus. We employ instrumental variables methods, and take advantage of a regression discontinuity design to examine causal effects of class size on mathematics achievement. The results indicate a non-significant relationship between class size and mathematics achievement in 8th grades. However, there is evidence of positive class size effects in 4th grade. The gender gap is significant and favoured males in 4th grade and females in 8th grade. SES indexes such as parental education and items in the home are positively and significantly related to mathematics achievement. Teacher and school variables are not significantly related with mathematics achievement.     

Teacher Behaviors Related to the Mathematical Achievement of Young Children

Abstract

Some scholars argue that the effects of small classes in the early grades are not cumulative—that the benefits of small classes accrue in the 1st year of small classes. That argument suggests both policy implications and scientific questions of why additional benefits should not accrue from additional exposure to small classes. In this article, the cumulative effects of small classes on achievement were investigated with data from Project STAR, a 4-year, large-scale randomized experiment on the effects of class size. Controlling for achievement in the previous-year small classes in Grades 1, 2, and 3 yielded additional positive effects on reading and mathematics achievement. Thus, there are additional (cumulative) effects of small classes after the 1st year that may be large enough to be important for education policy.     

A Longitudinal Assessment of Antecedent Course Work in Mathematics and Subsequent Mathematical Attainment

Abstract

Using six waves of data (Grades 7–12) from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth, the author examined the effects of different mathematics course work (pre-algebra, geometry, calculus) on subsequent achievement in, and attitude toward, mathematics, with partial adjustment for student background characteristics. Results showed that in the early grades of high school, algebra courses significantly affected mathematics achievement. Mathematics course work, however, did not play a significant role in mathematics achievement in the middle grades of high schools. There was a “harvest” of significant course-work indicators in the later grades of high school; every advanced mathematics course affected mathematics achievement. Many course-work effects were substantial even after accounting for variables such as prior mathematics achievement and socioeconomic status.     

Institutional and Student Factors and Their Influence on Advanced Mathematics Achievement

Abstract

The author examined advanced mathematics achievement with 1,839 students from 162 schools. The data were obtained from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study Population 3 cohort; the author used hierarchical (multilevel) linear modeling to examine student- and school-level factors. Even within the advanced mathematics cohort, gender and economic disparities existed, but the magnitude of these disparities varied from school to school. Average parent education was observed to be associated with the magnitude of the coefficient for attitude toward mathematics on achievement. The more a student believed that success in mathematics was caused by natural ability, the higher the score on the test. Finally, resources, school size, and average parent education were significantly associated with school mean achievement in advanced mathematics.     

Evidence that class size matters in 4th grade mathematics: An analysis of TIMSS 2007 data for Colombia

Like students in most developing countries, Colombian students in 4th grade performed poorly in the TIMSS 2007 test of mathematics skills, achieving an average score of 355 relative to an international mean of 500. After controlling for other factors and misreporting error, I find that large classes have substantial adverse effects on student achievement. Increases in class size from 20 to 53 students reduce test scores by about 80 points, or 2.4 points for each additional student in the class. Most likely this is the cumulative effect of class size in grades one to four on achievement in 4th grade.     

PISA mathematics and reading performance differences of mainstream European and Turkish immigrant students

Lower reading and mathematics performance of Turkish immigrant students as compared to mainstream European students could reflect differential learning outcomes, differential socioeconomic backgrounds of the groups, differential mainstream language proficiency, and/or test bias. Using PISA reading and mathematics scores of these groups, we examined the role of bias and various measures related to immigrant integration policies of the host societies. Results of a multilevel analysis of reading and mathematics tests demonstrated that at individual level, students with higher scores on an index of economic, social, and cultural status obtained higher achievement scores. At country level, MIPEX scores of education and the human development index of participating countries could predict differences in reading results but not in mathematics. After correction for background characteristics, effect sizes showed a difference of .65 SD (down from a value of .96 before correction) for reading and .58 SD (down from .78) for mathematics. However, a similar correction for background variables increased the score differences between Turkish immigrants and mainstreamers.     

Globalised student achievement? A longitudinal and cross-country analysis of convergence in mathematics performance

ABSTRACT

With the aid of longitudinal country-level data from five IEA TIMSS assessments (1995–2011), the current study addresses the issue of the globalisation of curricula and achievement. To explore the hypothesis of global convergence, we study performance in four subdomains of mathematics. Using regression with fixed effects for countries, we consider whether the variation of subdomain scores decreases globally over time. Additionally, we explore qualitative differences in performance profiles using latent class analysis. Our results provide little evidence for a global harmonisation of student achievement. Rather, for regions with a similar language and culture, we observe similar strengths and weaknesses in mathematics content areas. Furthermore, these patterns remain stable over time. Directions for future research include the exploration of global trends in aspects of attained curricula for other subjects, and the use of information on school achievement.     

Negative Keying Effects in the Factor Structure of TIMSS 2011 Motivation Scales and Associations with Reading Achievement

ABSTRACT

The Student Background survey administered along with achievement tests in studies of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement includes scales of student motivation, competence, and attitudes toward mathematics and science. The scales consist of positively- and negatively keyed items. The current research examined the factorial structure of the 18-item motivational scales in fourth-grade mathematics in the 2011 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Survey data from six European countries were analyzed. In comparisons of alternative models, the fit was adequate when three correlated factors were specified and negative keying was taken into account as a latent factor, or with correlated uniquenesses among negatively keyed items. Participants reading achievement scores correlated systematically to negative keying with coefficients ranging from .254 to .395 in the six samples. Unlike their higher-scoring peers, fourth-graders with lower reading achievement responded differentially to similar items depending on the direction of item keying, in such a way that their motivation scores were biased downward. Implications about the use of reverse keying in surveys for young students are discussed.     

Measuring the Efficiency of Teachers by Standardized Tests

ABSTRACT

There have been strong calls to action in recent years to promote both school choice and the learning of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This has led to the burgeoning development of STEM-focused schools. Nine STEM-focused charter and 2 STEM-focused magnet schools that serve elementary-aged students were examined to assess the achievement of students who transfer to these schools, as compared to students transferring to non-STEM schools, in the content areas of mathematics, language arts, and reading. The achievement of students transferring to STEM-focused elementary schools was also evaluated after 3 years at their new school and compared both to students’ own prior achievement at their old school and to achievement of students comprising comparison groups. Results generally indicated no effect of STEM-focused magnet schools, but did indicate some positive effects of STEM-focused charter schools.     

Universal patterns or the tale of two systems? Mathematics achievement and educational expectations in post-socialist Europe

Although communist ideology claimed to destroy former class stratification based on labour market capitalist relationships, de facto during socialism one social class hierarchy was substituted for another that was equally unequal. The economic transition during the 1990s increased stratification by wealth, which affected educational inequality. This study examines the relationships among parental education, gender, educational expectations and mathematics achievement of youths in five post-socialist Eastern European countries, comparing them with three Western countries. We employed the 8th-grade data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 1995 and 2007. The findings point to the universal associations between parental education and student outcomes, whereas gender comparisons present interesting East-West differences. The theoretical and policy implications of these findings are discussed.     

A Comparison of Two Methods of Learning

ABSTRACT

This is an impact evaluation of the Technical Support to Failing Schools Program, a Chilean compensatory program that provided 4-year in-school technical assistance to low-performing schools to improve students’ academic achievement. The author implemented a quasi-experimental design by using difference-in-differences estimation combined with propensity scores matching procedures to estimate treatment effects. The main findings were the following: (a) the program had positive effects on fourth-grade students’ achievement in both language and mathematics; (b) program effect size was 0.23 standard deviations, and not sensitive to control for covariates; (c) there were larger effects for students in the middle part of the students’ test-score distribution; (d) after the intervention had ceased, the program impact declined rapidly; and (e) the program reduced grade retention by 1.5 percentage points.     

The Dutch gender gap in mathematics: Small for achievement, substantial for beliefs and attitudes

In general, studies on gender and mathematics show that the advantage held by boys over girls in mathematics achievement has diminished markedly over the last 40 years. Some researchers even argue that gender differences in mathematics achievement are no longer a relevant issue. However, the results of the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study of 2003 (TIMSS-2003), as well as the participation rates of girls in (advanced) mathematics courses, show that in some countries, such as the Netherlands, gender equity in mathematics is still far from a reality. Research on gender and mathematics is often limited to the relationship between gender differences in attitudes toward mathematics and gender differences in mathematics achievement. In school effectiveness research, theories and empirical evidence emphasize the importance of certain school and class characteristics (e.g., strong educational leadership, safe and orderly learning climate) for achievement and attitudes. However, there is little information available at to whether these factors have the same or a different influence on the achievement of girls and boys. This study used the Dutch data from TIMSS-2003 to explore the relationship between school- and class characteristics and the mathematics achievement and attitudes for both girls and boys in Grade 4 of the primary school. The explorations documented in this paper were guided by a conceptual model of concentric circles and involved multilevel analyses. Interaction effects with gender were assessed for each influencing factor that turned out to have a significant effect. The results of these analyses provide additional insight into the influence that non-school-related and school-related factors have on the mathematics achievement and attitudes of girls and boys.     

School effects on Chilean children’s achievement growth in language and mathematics: An accelerated growth curve model

This study investigates school effects on primary school students’ language and mathematics achievement trajectories in Chile, a context of particular interest given its large between-school variability in educational outcomes. The sample features an accelerated longitudinal design (3 time points, 4 cohorts) together spanning Grades 3 to 8 (n = 19,704 students in 156 schools). The magnitudes of school effects on students’ growth trajectories were found to be sizeable (generally larger than school effects in Western industrialised countries) and moderately consistent across school subjects. School composition effects on student achievement status were found for both school subjects. However, there was no evidence of composition effects on student achievement growth. The study provides new evidence on the size and nature of school effects in a developing country context based on state-of-the-art methods (i.e., accelerated longitudinal and growth curve models).     

Relationships Between Student Perception of Teacher-Student Relations and PISA Results in Mathematics and Science

Teacher-student relations have a significant correlation with student motivation, academic performance and discipline. For example, the meta-analysis by Hattie (2009) revealed an effect size of d = 0.72 for the effect of relations on achievement, and the meta-analysis by Finn, Schrodt, Witt, Elledge, Jernberg & Larson (Communication Education, 58(4), 516–537, 2009) showed a correlation of 0.55 between the perceived care by teachers and student achievement. These were established by comparing students, but comparisons of schools or countries with high or low levels of teacher-student relations are missing. The present paper analyses the correlation between teacher-student relations and Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 results in science and mathematics on three levels: student, school and country level. The study shows a weak positive relationship (correlations up to 0.16) at the student level, and a positive relationship (up to 0.34) at school level. The multilevel analysis revealed a negative relationship between teacher-student relations and PISA results (r = ?.51) at the country level. To understand the negative relationship, also known as an ecological fallacy, the countries were grouped into geographical regions in which the relationship was insignificant and the positive effect of teacher-student relations was found by comparing with some neighboring countries. Implications for practice and further studies are proposed on the basis of these findings.     

Contributions of Instructional Practices to Reading Achievement in a Statewide Improvement Program

Abstract

The amount and direction of school change in reading achievement on a statewide, high-stakes performance assessment were identified. School change in reading achievement with instructional practices reported by teachers in primary and intermediate grades in 33 schools was predicted. Meta-analyses of the effects of instructional practices in reading on achievement in 6 areas—including reading, writing, language use, mathematics, science, and social studies—were conducted. In Grade 5, achievement in reading, science, mathematics, and writing increased significantly. Practices of integrated instruction and use of abundant texts and resources were associated positively with change in achievement. Basal emphasis and comprehension instruction were associated negatively with achievement change. In Grade 3, few effects were observed. Findings are interpreted in light of existing models of integrated instruction and the roles of teacher knowledge in achievement and learning.