Obama's American Graduation Initiative: Race,Conservative Modernization,and a Logic of Abstraction

The American Graduation Initiative stands as the cornerstone of the Obama administration's higher education agenda. To investigate the state of the politics of education in the Age of Obama, this article employs critical discourse analysis to unveil the hidden meanings and ideological commitments inherent in Obama's policy discourse. Read within and against the backdrop of what Apple (2006 Apple, M. W. 2006. Educating the “right” way: Markets, standards, God, and inequality , 2nd ed., New York, NY: Routledge.  [Google Scholar]) called the era of conservative modernization, Obama's policy discourse relies on a logic of abstraction that serves to promote a falsely “postracial” society in which hegemonic notions of education are perpetuated.     

The Creation and Evolution of a Co-Teaching Community: How Teachers Learned to Address Adolescent English Language Learners' Needs as Writers

This article reports findings from a four-year formative experiment (Reinking &; Bradley, 2008 Reinking, D., &; Bradley, B. (2008). On formative and design experiments. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar]) investigating a summer writing institute for ninth graders entering an urban high school. Intended as enrichment, not remediation, for a heterogeneous group of students, and as a learning experience, not just a teaching opportunity, for practitioners, the institute was grounded in multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996 New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66, 60–92. [Google Scholar]) and scholarship on inclusive schooling (Udvari-Solner, 1997 Udvari-Solner, A. (1997). Inclusive education. In C. A. Grant &; G. Ladson-Billings (Eds.), Dictionary of multicultural education (pp. 141–144). Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press. [Google Scholar]). Its essential elements included (1) composing by students in both print and digital genres, (2) a small set of instructional approaches effective for heterogeneous populations, and (3) co-teaching and co-planning by institute staff. This article focuses on teachers' efforts to support the writing development of English Language Learners (ELLs), who represented 20–30% of institute participants each year. Findings revealed that as teachers made adjustments to the institute model over time, their efforts to support ELLs' participation became more grounded in collective examination of varied student data. As teachers worked in community with each other (Swanson, 2007 Swanson, D. (2007). Ubuntu: An African contribution to (re)search for/with a “humble togetherness.” Journal of Contemporary Issues in Education, 2(2), 53–67. [Google Scholar]; Venter, 2004 Venter, E. (2004). The notion of Ubuntu and communalism in African educational discourse. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 23, 149–160. [Google Scholar]), they increased their ability to address student writers' diverse needs.     

Adaptation and Pilot Testing of a Sexual Health Intervention for Female Survivors of Violence

Experiences of violence and behaviors that increase the risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted infection are high among women in the United States, and they often intersect (Meyer, Springer, &; Altice, 2011 Meyer, J. P., Springer, S. A., &; Altice, F. L. (2011). Substance abuse, violence, and HIV in women: A literature review of the syndemic. Journal of Women's Health (2002), 20(7), 991–1006. doi:10.1089/jwh.2010.2328[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Montgomery et al., 2015 Montgomery, B., Rompalo, A., Hughes, J., Wang, J., Haley, D., Soto-Torres, L., &; Hodder, S. (2015). Violence against women in selected areas of the united states.e1-e11. Am J Public Health, 105(10), 2156–2166 [Google Scholar]; World Health Organization (WHO), 2010 World Health Organization (WHO). (2010). Addressing violence against women and HIV/AIDS: What works?. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. [Google Scholar]). However, there are few evidence-based HIV-prevention interventions that address the special needs and challenges faced by female survivors of violence (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC), 2017a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017a). Compendium of evidence-based interventions and best practices for HIV prevention. Atlanta, GA: Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexual Transmitted Diseases and Tuberculosis Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/research/interventionresearch/compendium/rr/index.html [Google Scholar]). To address this gap, we adapted and pilot-tested an existing evidence-based women-focused sexual risk-reduction intervention (The Future Is Ours) with 23 self-identified female survivors of violence. The intervention comprised eight-weekly, two-hour cognitive behavioral group sessions focusing on reducing sexual-risk and improving trauma-based coping skills. Using mixed-methods analyses, the adapted intervention was determined feasible and acceptable to participants, and preliminary results suggest that participation could reduce risk factors for sexually transmitted infections. Therefore, testing on a larger scale is warranted.     

“I Do This for All of the Reasons America Doesn't Want Me To”: The Organic Pedagogies of Black Male Instructors

ABSTRACT

This article examines the teaching philosophies of Black male teachers of Black male students in manhood development classes in a district-wide program in Oakland, California. Drawing on observations and instructor interview data, we explore the teachers’ histories, teaching philosophies, and the trajectory of their racial-educational understandings. We utilize Gramsci's (1971 Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci: Hoare, Q. & Smith, G. N. (Eds.). (Hoare, Q. & Smith, G. N., trans.) New York, NY: International.  [Google Scholar]) theory of the organic intellectual, Mills’ (1997 Mills, C. W. (1997). The racial contract. Cornell, NY: Cornell University Press. [Google Scholar]) and Leonardo's (2013 Leonardo, Z. (2013). The story of schooling: Critical race theory and the educational racial contract. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 34, 599–610. doi: 10.1080/01596306.2013.822624[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) theories of the subperson and substudent, and Dumas’ (2014 Dumas, M. J. (2014). “Losing an arm”: Schooling as a site of Black suffering. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 17(1), 1–29. doi: 10.1080/13613324.2013.850412 [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) notion of Black suffering to theorize the ways that race comes into play in the teaching of African American male students. We find that racialization and re-humanization are key to instructors’ teaching, and we identify two key aspects of their teaching philosophies: (1) Humanization/Love and (2) Reciprocity.     

A Critical Challenge: The Engagement and Assessment of Contingent,Part-Time Adjunct Faculty Professors in United States Community Colleges

In 2011, according to a National Center for Education Statistics report, part-time instructional staff in all higher education institutions exceeded full-time faculty members for the first time, accounting for 50% of all instructional staff (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2012 National Center for Education Statistics . ( 2012 ). IPEDS, Digest of education statistics, Winter 2011–12, human resources component, fall staff section: Table 286 [data file]. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/dt12_286.asp  [Google Scholar]). The same report indicates part-time faculty in community colleges exceeds 70% of instructional staff. Perhaps more alarming are the numbers of contingent instructional staff—faculty without long-term employment commitments. According to this measure, nearly 70% of faculty members in all areas of higher education have little-to-no job stability (American Association of University Professors [AAUP], 2013 American Association of University Professors (AAUP) . ( 2013 ). Background facts on contingent faculty. Retrieved from http://www.aaup.org/issues/contingency/background-facts  [Google Scholar]; Schuster & Finklestein, 2006 Schuster , J. H. , & Finklestein , M. J. ( 2006 ). The American faculty: The restructuring of academic work and careers . Baltimore , MD : The Johns Hopkins University Press . [Google Scholar]). However, limited research exists on the working experiences of this major subpopulation of United States professors.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of part-time contingent community college faculty regarding the assessment processes their institutions implemented. Through interviews, researchers gathered data identifying what 20 part-time contingent faculty professors reported regarding teaching conditions and institutional assessment procedures. Participant interviews revealed two major themes centered on a lack of institutional engagement and meaningful assessment policies or procedures.     

Taking a Different Route: Contribution of Articulation and Metacognition to Intervention With At-Risk Third-Grade Readers

This study compared the impact of 2 types of small-group interventions targeting below-level 3rd-grade students. The study compared WordWork decoding and spelling instruction (Calfee, Miller, Norman, Wilson, &; Trainin, 2006 Calfee, R. C., Miller, R. G., Norman, K., Wilson, K., &; Trainin, G. (2006). Learning to do educational research. In M. A. Constas &; R. J. Sterenberg (Eds.), Translating theory and research into educational practice: Developments in content domains, large scale reform, and intellectual capacity (pp. 77–103). New York, NY: Routledge. [Google Scholar]; Calfee &; Patrick, 1995 Calfee, R. C., &; Patrick, C. L. (1995). Teach our children well: Bringing K–12 education into the 21st Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford Alumni Assoc. [Google Scholar]), which includes attention to articulation and metacognition, with a more traditional phonological awareness program (Torgesen &; Bryant, 1993 Torgesen, J. K., &; Bryant, B. R. (1993). Phonological awareness training for reading. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. [Google Scholar]). University education students delivered the interventions with equal instructional time and fidelity, to both groups. Students in both intervention groups engaged in repeated readings of connected text to promote transfer. The impact of training was assessed through decoding, spelling, and oral reading fluency measures. Results indicated that WordWork produced more positive results in decoding, spelling, and fluency, and had significantly fewer treatment resisters.     

Assessing Pre-Service Teacher Attitudes and Skills With the Technology Integration Confidence Scale

As technology integration continues to gain importance, preservice teachers must develop higher levels of confidence and proficiency in using technology in their classrooms (Kay, 2006 Kay, R. H. 2006. Evaluating strategies used to incorporate technology into preservice education: A review of the literature. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38: 383–408. [Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]). The acceptance of the National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (NETS-T) by National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has compelled teacher education programs to reexamine their curricula. However, most of these efforts lack the theory-based measures (Netemeyer, Bearden, &; Sharma, 2003 Netemeyer, R. G., Bearden, W. O. and Sharma, S. 2003. “Scaling procedures: Issues and applications”. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) of NETS-T dispositions and proficiency. In an effort to address this need, the Technology Integration Confidence Scale (TICS) was developed at Brigham Young University's McKay School of Education. This article describes the development of the TICS, which consists of 28 self-efficacy items based on tasks described in the NETS-T. It was pilot tested on preservice teachers during the spring 2006 term (N = 52), and the results were analyzed for item functioning and reliability. Evidence was also gathered to support the result's validity.     

Digital video as a pedagogical resource in doctoral education

In recent years, multimedia technologies have become increasingly common in teaching practice. Digital video has provided a welcome alternative to traditional instructional techniques. Though it has been used to facilitate research collaboration [Armstrong, V., & Curran, S. (2006 Armstrong, V., & Curran, S. (2006). “Developing a Collaborative Model of Research Using Digital Video.” Computers & Education 46 (3): 336–347  [Google Scholar]). “Developing a Collaborative Model of Research Using Digital Video.” Computers & Education 46 (3): 336–347], it remains an under-utilized resource for presentation and research dissemination in doctoral education. The Innovation Academy at Trinity College Dublin and University College Dublin has established innovation and entrepreneurship alongside research and education as an integral element of the PhD programme. Since 2010, the Innovation Academy has facilitated the use of digital video within an interactive multidisciplinary learning environment. While enrolled on a Graduate Certificate in Innovation and Entrepreneurship, over 100 doctoral students have planned, shot, edited and presented a short video, ‘pitching’ their PhD research. This paper details the rationale and process of capturing complex research findings using this medium. We explore the challenges of using video to organize empirical data, visually represent theoretical concepts and evaluate its effectiveness in communicating PhD research to non-expert groups, the wider academic community and potential industry partners. Based on our findings, we reflect on how digital video may be used as a valuable tool for learning in action.     

Sexual Health Education for Individuals with Disabilities: A Call to Action

Expressing sexuality is part of the human experience, yet sexual health is often ignored in regard to persons with disabilities. Individuals with disabilities are at risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, unwanted pregnancies, and sexually transmitted diseases. Additionally, many adolescents with disabilities lack the knowledge needed to develop a healthy sexual identity, therefore, increasing their vulnerability (Baladerian, et al., 2013 Baladerian, N. J., Coleman, T. F., &; Stream, J. (2013). Abuse of people with disabilities: Victims and their families speak out: A report on the 2012 national survey on abuse and people with disabilities. Retrieved from http://disability-abuse.com/survey/survey-report.pdf [Google Scholar]; Boehning, 2006 Boehning, A. (2006). Sex education for students with disabilities. Law &; Disorder, 1, 56–66. [Google Scholar]; Preston, 2013 Preston, M. (2013). ‘Very very risky’: Sexuality education teachers' definition of sexuality and teaching and learning responsibilities. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 8(1-2), 18–35. doi:10.1080/15546128.2013.790223.[Taylor &; Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]; SEICUS, 2012 SIECUS: Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States. (2012). Bibliography: Sexuality and disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.siecus.org [Google Scholar], 2014 SIECUS: Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.siecus.org [Google Scholar]). Resources have been developed to improve the sexual health of individuals with disabilities; however, those who need this education may not have access to the resources. The purpose of this literature review is to examine sexual health education for individuals with disabilities; it focuses on risks to people with disabilities, current barriers to education, and available resources.     

Freeing the Mind of the Oppressed

This article examines the evidence that supports and rebuts the claims of school resegregation. By examining both types of evidence and considering them complementary (James 1986 James, F. 1986. A new generalized “exposure-based” segregation index: Demonstration in Denver and Houston. Sociological Methods and Research, 14(3): 301–16. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kelly and Miller 1989 Kelly, P. and Miller, W. 1989. Assessing desegregation efforts: No “best measure.”. Public Administration Review, 49(5): 431–37. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the author gives the reader a deeper understanding of the current trends in school segregation. First, the literature on the topic of school segregation is discussed. Then follows a discussion of the methods used in the study and the findings. The conclusion includes implications of the findings.     

Conducting the “Business of Teaching”: Expectations of Non-instructional Tasks of Beginning STEM Teachers

Abstract

Much debate centers on the most necessary elements of teacher preparation programs, with many focusing on practice of core instructional tasks (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kennedy 2016 Kennedy, M. 2016. Parsing the practice of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 67 (1):6–17. doi: 10.1177/0022487115614617.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which may be diluted in alternative preparation programs (Forzani 2014 Forzani, F. M. 2014. Understanding “Core Practices” and “Practice-Based” teacher education learning from the past. Journal of Teacher Education 65 (4):357–68. doi: 10.1177/0022487114533800.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Teachers prepared in alternative programs tend to have greater difficulties with classroom management, instructional planning, and differentiated instruction (Darling-Hammond 2009 Darling-Hammond, L. 2009. Educational opportunity and alternative certification: New evidence and new questions. Policy Brief (1). Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education. [Google Scholar]; Wilson 2011 Wilson, S. 2011. Effective STEM teacher preparation, induction, and professional development. In National Research Council’s Workshop on Successful STEM Education in K–12 Schools. Washington, DC. http://sites.nationalacademies.org/dbasse/bose/dbasse_080128#.UgEMEFPkDDn. [Google Scholar]); however, few studies have examined alternatively prepared STEM teachers’ beliefs and expectations about teaching and learning (Tigchelaar et al. 2010 Tigchelaar, A., N. Brouwer, and J. Vermunt. 2010. Tailor-made: Towards a pedagogy for educating second-career teachers. Educational Research Review 5 (2):164–83.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Good et al. 2006 Good, T., M. McCaslin, H. Tsang, J. Zhang, C. Wiley, A. Rabidue Bozack, and W. Hester. 2006. How well do 1st-year teachers teach: Does type of preparation make a difference? Journal of Teacher Education 57 (4):410–30.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and fewer still have examined their beliefs about non-instructional responsibilities associated with the profession (LeTendre et al. 2001 LeTendre, G.K., D.P. Baker, M. Akiba, B. Goesling, and A. Wiseman. 2001. Teachers' work: Institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the U.S., Germany, and Japan. Educational Researcher 30 (6):3–15. doi: 10.3102/0013189X030006003.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Ovando 2001 Ovando, M. N. 2001. Teachers' perceptions of a learner-centered teacher evaluation system. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 15 (3):213–231. [Google Scholar]; Scriven 1994 Scriven, M. 1994. Duties of the teacher. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 8 (2):151–84. doi: 10.1007/BF00972261.[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). This inquiry examines the expectations of a cohort of STEM practitioners transitioning into STEM teaching positions from an abbreviated alternative certification program; during their first year of teaching and concurrent final internship, the paid interns exhibited heightened emotional responses (i.e. crying, not eating, not sleeping) documented by university supervisors. Researchers utilized Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins 1987 Higgins, E. T. 1987. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 94 (3):319–40.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to provide an understanding of how expectations can produce negative affect, such as anxiety or depression. Findings suggest this cohort of paid interns had expectations about both personal and non-instructional time, planning, school resources, and legal responsibilities incongruent with the realities of the job. Researchers call for further research on STEM practitioners’ beliefs and expectations of non-instructional tasks as they transition from accelerated M.A.T. programs into teaching.     

Active Learning Strategies for the Mathematics Classroom

Active learning involves students engaging with course content beyond lecture: through writing, applets, simulations, games, and more (Prince, 2004 Prince, M. 2004. “Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research.” Journal of Engineering Education 93: 223–232.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). As mathematics is often viewed as a subject area that is taught using more traditional methods (Goldsmith &; Mark, 1999 Goldsmith, L. T., &; J. Mark. 1999. “What is a Standards-Based Mathematics Curriculum?”. Educational Leadership 57: 40—44.[Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), there are actually many simple ways to make undergraduate mathematics courses more active, starting with the discussion of the syllabus. This article describes simple ways to turn course introductions, review of prior knowledge, and formative assessment into active learning experiences for students.     

Stories of Smartness and Whiteness in School Pictures and Yearbooks

This article explores the way that discourses of smartness and whiteness are produced and reproduced in schooling. Using an approach grounded in narrative research, I explore the convergences and contradictions between my own educational autobiography and the representations of schooling found in my school pictures and yearbooks. In my analysis, I argue that white supremacy played an important role in the construction of my own story of smartness throughout my primary and secondary schooling experiences. I also argue that yearbooks form powerful “artifacts of smartness” (Hatt, 2011 Hatt, B. (2011). Smartness as a cultural practice in schools. American Educational Research Journal, 49(3), 438–460. doi: 10.3102/0002831211415661[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], p. 448) that can be used to interpret and interrogate personal experiences as well as larger societal discourses of smartness and whiteness in schooling.     

Making a difference: moving beyond the superficial treatment of diversity

As populations in contemporary Western societies grow more diverse, the need for teachers to better understand and work with difference productively becomes increasingly critical (Allard & Santoro, 2006 Allard, A. C. and Santoro, N. 2006. Troubling identities: Teacher education students' constructions of class and ethnicity.. Cambridge Journal of Education, 36(1): 115–129. [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]; D'Cruz, 2007 D'Cruz, H. 2007. Working with ‘Diverse Bodies, Diverse Identities’: An approach to professional education about ‘diversity’.. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 11(1): 35–57.  [Google Scholar]). However, the literature on teacher education shows that historically, teacher education programs have aimed to address diversity with add‐on or piecemeal approaches, with little success (McDonald, 2005 McDonald, M. A. 2005. The integration of social justice in teacher education: Dimensions of prospective teachers' opportunities to learn.. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(5): 418–435.  [Google Scholar]). Moreover, some authors (e.g. Lortie, 1975 Lortie, D. 1975. Schoolteacher: A sociological study, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  [Google Scholar]) have argued that “the predispositions teacher education students bring to teaching are a much more powerful socializing influence than either pre‐service education or later socialization in the workplace” (Johnson, 2002 Johnson, L. 2002. “My eyes have been opened”: White teachers and racial awareness.. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2): 153–167. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar], p. 154). This article explores research and scholarship in this area and argues that we must move beyond the fragmented and superficial treatment of diversity if we are to encourage dispositions in all pre‐service teachers that are more closely aligned with a recognitive view of social justice.     

I Grew Up Straight ‘hood: Unpacking the Intelligences of Working-Class Latino Male College Students in North Carolina

Primarily drawing from the Mestiz@ Theory of Intelligences (Carrillo, 2013 Carrillo, J. F. (2013). I always knew I was gifted: Latino males and the Mestiz@ theory of intelligences (MTI). Berkeley Review of Education, 4(1), 69–95. [Google Scholar]), this article examines how working class Latino male college students in North Carolina navigate multiple cultural worlds and excel academically. This work addresses current gaps in the literature that largely fail to unpack the experiences of academically successful Latin@ college students in the southeastern U.S. and also informs current work on males of color in schools, a topic that, in this region, is largely devoid of any research focus. Moreover, this study provides implications for teacher preparation and for extending current research that focuses on low-income youth of color.     

Researching female professors: the difficulties of representation,positionality and power in feminist research

This article draws on findings from my doctoral research to exemplify some of the difficulties I encountered when interviewing 20 female professors¹1. In the UK context, the title of ‘professor’ is reserved for full professors only – that is, those with either an established or personal chair. and subsequently writing about their life histories. In this article, I discuss how I addressed the issues of representing and positioning my participants, and I reflect on the power dynamics present in the research process. The article contends that by drawing on Bourdieu and Wacquant's [An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press] understanding of reflexivity and feminist interpretations of their work including McNay [“Gender, Habitus and the Field: Pierre Bourdieu and the Limits of Reflexivity.” Theory Culture Society 16: 95] and Adkins [“Reflexivity Freedom or Habit of Gender?” Theory Culture Society 20: 21], valuable research can be produced, despite the difficulties. A related aim of this paper is to reflect back after four years in an academic post on my position as a novice researcher, and some of the associated issues facing doctoral students, particularly the problems with researching upwards [Walford, G. 2011 Walford, G. 2011. “Researching the Powerful.” British Educational Research Association on-line resource. Accessed March 17, 2014. www.bera.ac.uk/system/files/Researching%20the%20Powerful.pdf [Google Scholar]. “Researching the Powerful. British Educational Research Association On-line Resource.” Accessed March 17, 2014. www.bera.ac.uk/system/files/Researching%20the%20Powerful.pdfWalford 2011].     

A History of the Community College Internship Program at North Carolina State University

Following World War II, North Carolina created public junior colleges and industrial education centers to meet the educational demands of veterans and expand the technical skills of the state's workforce. Despite the creation of these campuses, in the early 1960s North Carolina ranked 47th in the number of citizens in college, and 66 counties in state possessed no campus to serve the local area. A system of comprehensive community colleges created in 1963 to extend education in the state comprised 56 campuses that enrolled 387,000 students by 1972. Few of the leaders or upper administration of the rapidly expanding community college system possessed doctoral education. Created in 1966 Department of Community Colleges. ( 1966 , December ). Comprehensive community college system in North Carolina [Internal Report]. William Dallas Herring Papers, 1957–1980 (Carton 69, File Box 253, Folder 253:05). North Carolina State University Special Collections Research Center , Raleigh , NC.  [Google Scholar] to alleviate this problem, the Community College Internship Program was designed to provide an intensive two-year doctoral training for personnel from the community college system. The program played an instrumental role in the early development of the state's community colleges and the professionalization of its leadership.     

Structural Equation Models of Latent Interactions: Clarification of Orthogonalizing and Double-Mean-Centering Strategies

The purpose of this investigation is to compare a new (double-mean-centering) strategy to estimating latent interactions in structural equation models with the (single) mean-centering strategy (Marsh, Wen, & Hau, 2004 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2004. Structural equation models of latent interactions: Evaluation of alternative estimation strategies and indicator construction.. Psychological Methods, 9: 275–300. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z. and Hau, K. T. 2006. “Structural equation models of latent interaction and quadratic effects”. In A second course in structural equation modeling Edited by: Hancock, G. and Mueller, R. 225–265. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.  [Google Scholar]) and the orthogonalizing strategy (Little, Bovaird, & Widaman, 2006 Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2006. On the merits of orthogonalizing powered and product term: Implications for modeling interactions among latent variables.. Structural Equation Modeling, 13: 497–519. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Marsh et al., 2007 Marsh, H. W., Wen, Z., Hau, K. T., Little, T. D., Bovaird, J. A. and Widaman, K. F. 2007. Unconstrained structural equation models of latent interactions: Contrasting residual- and mean-centered approaches.. Structural Equation Modeling, 14: 570–580. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). A key benefit of the orthogonalizing strategy is that it eliminated the need to estimate a mean structure as required by the mean-centering strategy, but required a potentially cumbersome 2-step estimation procedure. In contrast, the double-mean-centering strategy eliminates both the need for the mean structure and the cumbersome 2-stage estimation procedure. Furthermore, although the orthogonalizing and double-mean-centering strategies are equivalent when all indicators are normally distributed, the double-mean-centering strategy is superior when this normality assumption is violated. In summary, we recommend that applied researchers wanting to estimate latent interaction effects use the double-mean-centering strategy instead of either the single-mean-centering or orthogonalizing strategies, thus allowing them to ignore the cumbersome mean structure.