Is the cure worse than the disease? A longitudinal study on the effect of grade retention in secondary education on achievement and academic self-concept

Holding students back when they do not meet a specific attainment level is common practice in a lot of countries. However, this practice is not without controversy and recent studies point at the negative effects of grade retention, especially in the long-term. The majority of these studies focused on grade retention in primary education. In our study, we focused on the effect of grade retention in Grade 8 on language achievement and academic self-concept. We matched students who were and were not retained based on their propensity to be retained and compared both groups using a growth curve analysis. The basic treatment “grade retention vs. promotion” was extended with the certificate these students received at the end of Grade 8. With this growth curve analysis, we were able to draw conclusions on the effect in the short-term, as well as in the long-term. In the short-term (i.e. the year of retention), it seems that grade retention had no negative effect on language achievement in the short-term, and even a positive effect on academic self-concept in the year of retention. The effects became more negative when we considered effects in the long-term. Especially for language achievement, we found a strong decline in the achievement of grade retainees. We found no negative effect of grade retention on academic self-concept. We can conclude that grade retention has a negative effect on the achievement of retained students in the long run, but has no negative effect on academic self-concept. When we take into account the certificate they received, it seems that following the teacher’s advice to change track is a better decision than repeating the grade in the same track.     

Inclusion and the practice of repeating Kindergarten in Australia

Abstract

International evidence indicates there may be little or no academic benefit for children who are retained, and the possibility of negative long term socio-emotional outcomes for these children. Drawing on data from the nationally representative Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (n = 4464), this paper provides an Australian perspective on the practice of grade retention, specifically investigating repeating the Kindergarten year. Our results indicated that nearly half of grade retention occurring by Year 6 occurs in the Kindergarten year, the main reasons being related to learning and behavioural difficulties. The analyses identified a number of child and family factors associated with grade retention, the strongest predictors being maternal mental health and parental receptive language concern, with school readiness, receptive language skills, and child hyperactivity also relevant factors. The paper considers implications for early intervention to support children’s academic trajectories through school.     

Effects of kindergarten retention at the end of first grade

The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of kindergarten retention on firstgrade achievement and adjustment. Forty children who had been retained in kindergarten were identified from schools that practiced kindergarten retention at a high rate. Control children were selected from schools matched on socioeconomic and achievement level, but that did not practice retention in kindergarten. Then, control children were selected individually to match retained children on sex, birthdate, socioeconomic level, second language, and beginning kindergarten readiness scores. The two groups, which were equally young and unready at the start of kindergarten, were compared at the end of first grade on seven outcome measures; the retained children were then completing three years of school and the control children two. There were no differences between the retained and control children on teacher ratings of reading achievement, math achievement, social maturity, learner self-concept, or attention. The groups also did not differ in CTBS math scores; the only difference occurred on the CTBS reading test, where the retained group was one month ahead. Based on parent interview data, children who had spent an extra year before first grade were not much different from those deemed at risk but not retained, except that, on average, retained children had slightly more negative attitudes toward school. The study findings are consistent with other available research on transition programs that show no academic benefit for the extra year and, when examined, a negative impact on social-emotional outcomes.     

Holding back and holding behind: Grade retention and students’ non‐academic and academic outcomes

The present study examined the implications of grade retention (repeating a grade) and social promotion (automatic promotion to the next grade each year) for high school students’ academic and non‐academic outcomes. Based on data from 3261 high school students, structural equation modeling demonstrated that, after controlling for interactions with other factors, demographic covariates and ability, there were significant (p < 0.001) main effects of grade retention. In terms of academic factors, grade retention was a significant negative predictor of academic self‐concept and homework completion and a significant positive predictor of maladaptive motivation and weeks absent from school. In terms of non‐academic factors, grade retention was a significant negative predictor of self‐esteem but was not significantly associated with relationship with peers. In follow‐up analyses using a sub‐sample of retained (n = 186) and promoted (n = 186) students matched by ability, age and gender, findings were confirmed and with stronger effects on some factors. For nations and systems emphasizing grade retention and for those emphasizing social promotion, findings have implications for educational practice, policy and theories of child and academic development.     

Sorting out successful failures: Exploratory analyses of factors associated with academic and behavioral outcomes of retained students

This prospective longitudinal study followed a sample of 106 kindergarten students through 11th grade examining the effects of family characteristics, school readiness, socialization, and student demographics on academic achievement and behavioral adjustment outcomes. These educational outcomes were contrasted among four groups consisting of: 1) early grade retainees; 2) transitionally placed retained students; 3) students recommended for transitional placement, but promoted; and 4) regularly promoted students. While previous studies examining the efficacy of early grade retention focus exclusively on between‐group comparisons, this study examines the family and individual characteristics of successful and unsuccessful retained students by including both between‐group and within‐group effects on academic and behavioral outcomes. The results of this study demonstrate that retained students' initial school readiness, socioeconomic status, mother's level of education, parental value of education, kindergarten personal‐social functioning, and chronological age are distinctly associated with subsequent academic or behavioral outcomes. Variables associated with relative educational success following early failure are delineated and research implications are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Effects of grade retention on achievement and self-concept in science and mathematics

The study analyzes the effects of grade repetition on science and mathematics achievement and on self-concept in mathematics using longitudinal data from a representative sample of 9th graders in Germany. Same-age comparisons were applied between three groups: (a) the retained students, (b) a matched group of promoted students, and (c) the entire group of promoted students. The results show that the retained students have a higher self-concept in mathematics after one year of retention than before. Summarizing these empirical findings concerning achievement, we conclude that retention in the 9th grade does not reduce the gap in academic achievement to the regular promoted students.     

Nonpromotion: A pseudoscientific solution

The practice of retaining or holding students back a grade is gaining in popularity. A comprehensive review of the literature over the past 16 years supports that view and uncovers great discrepancies between educators' beliefs and confirmable evidence regarding retentions. This article describes actual retention practices in two Utah school districts and compares the children recommended for retention with a control group. These two groups were found to be significantly different in intellectual ability, academic achievement, and adjustment characteristics. In order to measure the effects of nonpromotion, the retained children's growth was compared to the growth of academically similar-functioning children who were recommended for retention but were promoted. These recommended-for-retention children were retested one year after the retention decision was made. Retention was not found to benefit the children academically or in personal or social adjustment.     

Relationship Between Psychosocial Factors and Academic Achievement Among African American Students

Abstract

The authors of this cross-sectional study used surveys based on the noncognitive model of W. E. Sedlacek and C. G. Brooks (1976) to determine psychosocial factors associated with African American students' high school achievement Psychosocial variables explored included community service, academic motivation, social support, and students' methods of handling unfair treatment. Results showed that after gender and absenteeism were controlled for, only the method of handling unfair treatment was positively associated with grade point average (GPA), p < .05. Those findings suggest that students who talk to others about being treated unfairly instead of keeping it to themselves are more likely to have higher GPAs; the findings also have important implications for individuals involved in the counseling and education of high school students. Sedlacek and Brooks's model provides an effective guide for predicting academic achievement and for developing programs to improve academic achievement among students of color. Further research is needed into psychosocial factors and their effects on academic achievement.     

A high school follow-up of children who were nonpromoted or attended a junior first grade

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the long-term effects of repeating a grade or participating in a junior first-grade program. High school students (N = 137) answered a questionnaire concerning their experience with grade retention or a transitional year while in elementary school. In addition, we collected data on past academic performance from the students' school records. Groups of students were composed of former participants in the junior first program, students who had been retained in a grade, and matched controls. Attitudes towards nonpromotion and the junior first program were positive and, among all three groups, there were few important differences in opinion. In high school, however, measures of academic competence indicated there were performance differences between the groups. Participants in the junior first program were at par with peers, whereas grade repeaters made less progress in high school and had lower mathematics grades. The later in school the grade retention, the poorer the academic performance.     

Parents’ and teachers’ views on the psychosocial adjustment of students with and without a history of early grade retention

The study compared teachers’ and parents’ views about elementary school children’s psychosocial adjustment with and without a history of early grade retention. The sample included retained and non-retained students currently in Grades Two and Four (age range 7.5 to 11.6 years) in Cypriot public schools. The retained students experienced early grade retention either in kindergarten or Grade One and, therefore, were one year older than their current classmates. Both parents and teachers of all children completed a psychosocial adjustment inventory designed to assess social, emotional, and school competence as well as behaviour problems. The findings indicated important differences between teachers and parents in their evaluation of children’s psychosocial adjustment, but notable similarities in consistently evaluating early-retained children lower on all aspects of adjustment. Teachers evaluated all students lower than parents in terms of behaviour, school, and social competence. Both groups, however, considered retained students lower in social and school competence regardless of grade level. The implications of these findings in relation to evaluation aspects of psychosocial adjustment and the practice of early-grade retention are discussed.     

Does it pay to be one of the oldest in class? Relative age effects on academic self-concept,peer relations,and teacher judgments in German primary schools

Several studies have revealed that older students in a year group reach higher achievement scores than younger students in that group. But less is known about how students' relative age in class relates to their self-perception of academic achievement, their social acceptance in class and to how teachers judge their abilities. Therefore, we examined relative age effects within class on students' academic self-concept, peer relations, grades, and teachers’ secondary school recommendation. Analyses were based on a sample of N = 18,956 German fourth graders, who had never been retained or accelerated. We applied multilevel regression to control for covariates at the individual and classroom level. There were no substantial relative age effects within class across any of the outcomes, except for a small advantage for the youngest in their reading self-concept. Our findings therefore contradict the common assumption that younger students in class are disadvantaged compared to their older classmates.     

A Comparison of Two Methods of Learning

ABSTRACT

This is an impact evaluation of the Technical Support to Failing Schools Program, a Chilean compensatory program that provided 4-year in-school technical assistance to low-performing schools to improve students’ academic achievement. The author implemented a quasi-experimental design by using difference-in-differences estimation combined with propensity scores matching procedures to estimate treatment effects. The main findings were the following: (a) the program had positive effects on fourth-grade students’ achievement in both language and mathematics; (b) program effect size was 0.23 standard deviations, and not sensitive to control for covariates; (c) there were larger effects for students in the middle part of the students’ test-score distribution; (d) after the intervention had ceased, the program impact declined rapidly; and (e) the program reduced grade retention by 1.5 percentage points.     

Year-long teacher professional development on fifth grade student science outcomes

ABSTRACT

We first examined the effects of a year-long professional development (PD) programme for elementary science teachers on fifth grade student performance on state-mandated science achievement tests of students from a treatment and a comparison group of teachers in the 2009–2010 academic year. Then, we investigated the longer-term impacts by comparing the 2010–2011 student test results of the teachers one year after receiving treatment in 2009–2010 with the students of teachers who received treatment during 2010–2011. Test scores were analysed using a propensity score matching method to examine the relationship between the PD and student achievement. Results showed that even though the treatment teachers were out of the classroom 20% of the school year to attend the PD, there was no difference between their students’ science achievement scores and those of the comparison teachers who were in the classroom every day. This is an important finding because many principals and parents are reluctant to provide teachers with release time for PD. We also determined that students of teachers one year after participating in the PD significantly (p?<?0.001) with a medium effect size (η²?=?.088) outperformed students of teachers who had just completed the programme. This suggests that it takes time for teachers to implement new teaching strategies and that to observe the impact of an intervention programme, it may be important to expand the timeframe of the programme evaluation.     

CLASSROOM GROUPING AND INTEGRATION

African American students and former students from a predominantly white institution (PWI) were interviewed to understand their perceptions regarding the impact of their families on their academic achievement and persistence. The characteristics of families that students perceived to support and hinder their academic success at college are described along with implications for improving African American college student retention theory and practice.     

Grade retention rates among students with learning disabilities.

This study investigated the grade retention of students with learning disabilities. Data were collected on 689 students referred and identified as having learning disabilities during the 1987-88 school year in Indiana. Of these students, 58% had been retained before identification. The results of this investigation suggest that retention is being used as a remediation before labeling a student. Implications of this practice and alternatives to grade retention as a method to address the academic needs of students are discussed.     

Gender, Psychosocial Dispositions, and the Academic Achievement of College Students

Researchers have recently claimed that there are substantial differences in the psychosocial dispositions and academic achievement of male and female college students. To test this proposition, a sample of 854 undergraduate students were selected from a major Canadian Research-1 university. Multiple regression analyses assessed the effects of gender and several other independent variables on coping strategies, academic control, self-esteem, and grade point averages. Few differences emerged between the genders on the psychosocial dispositions or on academic achievement. The results suggest that both male and female students can improve their coping strategies and academic control, which together directly affect their academic achievement.     

The Differences between Retained and Promoted Children in Educational Services Received

The purpose of this study was to determine whether students retained in first grade, relative to similarly low achieving students who were promoted, differed in the number of remedial educational services received by students in the year pre- retention year and in the repeat year. Study participants were 769 relatively low achieving first grade students, of whom 165 were retained in first grade and 604 were promoted. Controlling for students' conditional probability of being retained, based on propensity scores calculated prior to retention, retained students received the same number of services as promoted students during the pre-retention year. The following year, when retained students were in first grade and promoted students were in second grade, retained students received fewer services than promoted students. Furthermore, retained children had a larger decrease in services from year 1 to year 2. These data support the notion that grade retention is being employed as the primary intervention instead of a component of a more comprehensive remediation plan.     

Diagnosis,Remediation, and Locus of Control

The influence of locus of control, diagnosis, and remediation on immediate and retained achievement and attitudes of middle school science students was the focus of this study. Subjects in the experiment were assessed for locus of control and experienced one of three treatments: no diagnosis or remediation; diagnosis with no remediation; or, diagnosis and remediation. Immediate achievement was measured at two points during the experiment, and retention was measured 30 days following the experiment. Diagnosis and remediation proved to be significantly effective in increasing retained achievement. Internal locus of control subjects out-scored external subjects in the areas of both immediate and retained achievement. Whites achieved higher than blacks in retention. Attitudes of all groups tended to be positive. These findings suggest that diagnostic or diagnostic and remedial instruction is an effective means of increasing the retention level of middle school students.     

The Present Status and Significance of Manuscript Writing

Abstract

Teachers’ expectations as they relate to student achievement outcomes have received much research attention. Student expectations for their own achievement have not. Noninduced student expectations for their individual achievement, and for male and female differential achievement, in mathematics classes were assessed for 698 eighth grade students. Expectations were measured early in the school year via written self-report. Student ability level was also ascertained and controlled. Individual achievement expectations were found to relate to students’ subsequent achievement across criterion variables and times of the year.     

A promising science and literacy instructional model with Hispanic fifth grade students

Abstract

This study evaluated the Science and Literacy Instructional Model aimed at helping primarily Hispanic bilingual/English Learners (ELs) and economically disadvantaged fifth grade students with science achievement as measured by high-stakes standardized science achievement scores. The model combined purposeful planning, innovative academic vocabulary instruction, and a Lesson Design Lab. Difference-in proportions tests were used to determine if students at two school campuses showed positive achievement gains on a state science test. This study found statistically significant results with medium to large effect sizes at both campuses. Findings contribute to much needed research, practice, and policy in the area of effective models to assist both teachers and students in an era of high-stakes testing.