Reading comprehension: assisting children with learning difficulties

Abstract

In critiquing our paper on “The literacy performance of ex-Reading Recovery students between two and four years following participation in the program: Is this intervention effective for students with early reading difficulties?”, Schwartz argues that we have engaged in pursuing political and ideological agendas as part of our ongoing attacks on the Reading Recovery program. We reject his claims and argue that if we are ideological, it is related to our commitment to the use of rigorous scientific research to examine claims made in favor of the Reading Recovery program. We also argue that Reading Recovery was adopted in New Zealand largely for political reasons rather than on the basis of carefully controlled research. We stand by our interpretation of various studies in New Zealand that call into question the effectiveness of Reading Recovery in terms of the stated goals for the program.     

An Experiment with the SRA Reading Laboratory at Grade Two

Abstract

In phases one and two, 954 second graders followed similar basal reading programs during the school year, but 534 of the pupils had added, as a criterion variable, the SRA Reading Laboratory. Difference-in-mean tests of significance were applied to gains made in the areas of ten diagnostic subtests in phase one, and in phase two to gains made by three ability groups in three gross achievement areas. Eighteen classes participated in phase three to test by analysis of variance the effectiveness of the Laboratory as a total program. The study failed to disclose a single facet of reading achievement at Grade 2 for which the SRA Reading Laboratory is better suited than is a regular developmental program.     

Succeeding with High-Risk K–3 Populations Using Arts-Based Reading Instruction: A Longitudinal Study

ABSTRACT

Numerous studies have identified isolated elements for successfully teaching early reading. However, very few studies have examined the effect of early reading programs that use a combination of multiple research-based practices. A 4-year longitudinal study starting with 243 students was conducted to determine the effects of the Reading in Motion reading program on standardized measures of students’ reading skills. The program provided students from kindergarten through Grade 3 arts-based instruction in reading that teaches phonemic awareness, systematic phonics, and oral reading fluency using small groups and peer-assisted instruction with frequent, corrective feedback. Although the two groups were nearly identical upon entering kindergarten, the at-risk treatment students (N = 57) significantly outperformed control students (N = 48) at the end of kindergarten and Grades 1 and 2.     

Early schooling: its influence on reading comprehension at primary level / Escolarización temprana: su influencia sobre la comprensión lectora en primaria

Abstract

Early schooling may influence the future academic results of students. In spite of this, there are very few studies providing evidence to demonstrate such an influence, with children under three being included in the notion of early schooling, as is the case in this study. We analyse the influence of this kind of education on the reading comprehension of fourth year primary students in Spain, on the basis of the data obtained from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) of 2011. Given the type of sampling used with PIRLS, with its hierarchical structure, we estimate multilevel educational production functions. The results obtained indicate that early schooling, as well as the socio-economic and cultural background of families, has a positive effect on students’ results in reading comprehension. These results support proposals for widening opportunities for receiving free education in early childhood, at least for socio-economically disadvantaged families, in order to compensate for the lack of early schooling received by their children and the consequent effects this has on their reading skills.     

An Experimental Study of Formal Reading Instruction at the Kindergarten Level

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of formal reading instruction on kindergartners with respect to reading achievement, attitude toward reading, and attitude toward school.

Altogether 220 children, classified on intelligence and reading readiness variables, were randomly assigned to formal reading and readiness programs for four months. Criterion data respecting to achievement and attitudes were collected by means of the California Reading Test and constructed attitude inventories.

Analyses of data reveal that in terms of reading achievement, the reading program was more effective than the readiness program, but that attitudes toward school and reading were a function of intelligence and reading readiness when attitudes were measured by a teacher-reporting scale. When measured by a pupil self-reporting scale, attitudes were a function of the type of instruction, with children in the readiness program showing more favorable attitudes.     

Reading Disabled Students’ Word Recognition Abilities: An Elementary and Secondary Perspective

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to describe and compare three word recognition abilities of reading disabled students. One hundred and fifty (150) reading disabled pupils, 75 elementary and 75 high school, were randomly selected to participate in this study. Correlated t‐test procedures were used to process the data. The dependent variables were the students’ analytical, phonics, and context analysis word recognition abilities as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test, Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, and 12 cloze passages. Results indicated that elementary and secondary reading disabled pupils have significant differences in their ability to use the three different word recognition abilities investigated. Implications for minimum competency testing in reading were discussed.     

Context Effects on Students’ Gains in Reading Comprehension in Reading First Schools in Michigan

Reading First, Part B of Title 1 of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, provides support for states with approved programs to improve the reading achievement of early elementary students in high poverty, chronically low achieving schools. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which the Reading First program in the state of Michigan is making progress in meeting this goal after five years of implementation. The study design makes use of the reading comprehension achievement test results for cohorts of students who entered the program in different years and who took the test two or three times while attending a Reading First school in Michigan between 2002 and 2006. The results indicate that overall the students showed significant gains in reading comprehension; further, students with three years in Reading First tended to score higher than those with two years in Reading First. However, students whose socio-demographic characteristics place them at an educational disadvantage (e.g., eligibility for subsidized lunch) made relatively modest gains in reading comprehension. In addition, any negative effects attributable to such student characteristics are compounded when the student body in the school is composed of a large percentage of students with the same characteristic. These results suggest that while a successful program overall, Reading First is not comprehensive enough to counteract the socio-demographic problems of extremely high poverty schools.      

Causal Mediation in Educational Research: An Illustration Using International Assessment Data

Abstract

This paper applies the causal mediation framework proposed by Kosuke Imai and colleagues (Imai, Keele, & Tingley, 2010) to educational research by examining the causal mediating role of early literacy activities in parental education influences on reading performance. The paper argues that the study of causal mediation is particularly relevant in educational settings because learning outcomes result from complex interactions involving multiple actors. The analyses use retrospective longitudinal data from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011. The value of international assessment data for producing evidence of causation is discussed. The paper aims to contribute to the study of causation with observational data from educational studies.     

‘Meeting initial needs in literacy’ (MINILIT): A ramp to MULTILIT for younger low‐progress readers

Abstract

In spite of serious reservations expressed by reading scientists regarding both its efficacy and its cost effectiveness, for over 20 years Reading Recovery has been promoted internationally as the intervention of choice for young struggling readers. Following a brief review of research on Reading Recovery, several suggestions for improvement are suggested. An alternative small group‐based instructional model (MINILIT) is then described. This provides additional focus on phonemic awareness and allows access to the MULTILIT program for younger struggling readers. The results from two preliminary pilot studies are presented.     

Easy maths v4.1.1

Abstract

Phonemic awareness, or the ability to recognise spoken words as a sequence of individual sounds is thought to have a positive correlation with early reading success. This case study was developed to investigate incorporating phonemic awareness strategies into programs of reading acquisition, for students experiencing difficulties with learning. The study targeted two eleven year old girls who were classified as non readers at the beginning of the year of the study (1996). The two students were observed as members of two separate groups, one using the JHRASS program (Teaching Handwriting, Reading and Spelling Skills) which is based on phonemic awareness strategies and the other DI (Direct Instruction).

These were administered over an eight week period to determine the nature and extent of differences arising between the programs, including transfer into other work areas. The comparative data was generated from a participant observer's activities, including observational notes and reflections kept in a teacher diary, together with gains measured via a series of pre and post tests administered to each student.

Results indicated that the student on the phoneme‐grapheme based program THRASS appeared to make more significant gains than her matched partner receiving Direct Instruction, even in the short time period of this study. The THRASS program was observed to increase accessibility to everyday reading material, provide an easy modeling tool for adult assistance in spelling and reading and provide a more consistent basis on which to make judgments or choices of graphemes‐phonemes without having to learn a variety of rules or sayings.

The study findings provide strong evidence to suggest further investigation into THRASS and other phonemic awareness based programs.     

Promotion of Reading and Early Literacy Skills in Schools: a comparison of three European countries

This article gives a short overview based on the EU High Level Group of Experts on Literacy (HLWG) report to address issues and challenges in Europe on improving literacy competencies in schools. Furthermore, an analysis is conducted focusing on the promotion of reading and early literacy skills in schools taking into account psychological and institutional learning conditions in three countries (Denmark, Germany, and France) with different outcomes in PIRLS 2011 (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study). Country comparison is conducted using multiple groups – multilevel structural equation modelling (MG-MSEM). An important finding is that policy action taken in order to evaluate and improve school effectiveness in each country must address particular needs of its educational system. Suggestions for improving reading achievement in schools are derived from the analysis.     

Age-related changes in reading attitudes of young children: a cross-cultural study

The Preschool Reading Attitudes Scale (PRAS) was administered to 2201 young children, from three to five years of age, in early childhood programs from several regions of the United States. The scale is categorized into four areas related to children's reading environment. School Reading Activities, Non-school Reading Activities, Library Reading Activities and General Reading Activities. A validation sample revealed highly significant differences at all age levels between students receiving positive and negative teacher ratings of reading attitudes. The basic design involved three factors, age, sex, and ethnicity, and an analysis of variance was applied to total scores and subscores. The results showed significant outcomes for age and ethnicity, in addition to an age X ethnicity interaction. The results suggest that there are significant attitudinal differences between three-year-olds as opposed to four- and five-year-olds as well as age dependent differences among the ethnic groups.     

A pilot study of the Australasian Readwell program

Abstract

The “Readwell” program is an Australian‐designed approach to remediation of children's reading difficulties. Although used in most Australian states, the program has not been evaluated. This quasi‐experimental pilot study reports on a first phase of an evaluation of the program. It involves a preliminary examination of the program with a group of 18 grade six and seven students with significant reading delays. It was conducted over a ten‐week period during which students received 45‐minute group instruction with the Readwell program each day. In addition, interviews with the students and their teachers were conducted to examine perceived outcomes of the program. Surveys with selected parents of students who had completed the program 12 months previously were also conducted to gauge the endurance of students’ gains in reading competence. Some comparisons with the literature reporting on Reading Recovery programs are also included and some initial conclusions are draw in relation to the place of the Readwell program in remediation practices for students with a reading difficulty.     

Who benefits from which reading intervention in the primary years? Match the intervention with the reading profile

Abstract

Reading difficulties may have multiple causes. Effective approaches to reading intervention need to target the specific causes for individual readers. The Early Reading Intervention Knowledge program comprises three intervention pathways: a phonological-phonemic pathway, a phonic-orthographic pathway, and an oral language pathway. This study examines the effectiveness of each pathway for 902 underachieving students in their second to fifth years of primary education. The students differed in their reading profiles. The interventions were implemented in a regular school context. Intervention in the three pathways improved reading accuracy and comprehension for both the younger (Years 2 and 3) and older (Years 4 and 5) age groups. The pattern in accuracy gains across the three pathways was similar for each group, with the older students making smaller gains. Reading profiles influenced the rate or amount of gain. For comprehension, the phonological and oral language pathways yielded higher gains for both age groups than the orthographic pathway. The most at-risk students showed the highest gains. The implications for intervention are discussed.     

Long‐term outcomes of early reading intervention

This study explores the long‐term effectiveness of two differing models of early intervention for children with reading difficulties: Reading Recovery and a specific phonological training. Approximately 400 children were pre‐tested, 95 were assigned to Reading Recovery, 97 to Phonological Training and the remainder acted as controls. In the short and medium term both interventions significantly improved aspects of children's reading, Reading Recovery having a broader and more powerful effect. In the long‐term, 3½ years after intervention, there were no significant effects on reading overall, though Reading Recovery had a significant effect for a subgroup of children who were complete non‐readers at 6 years old. Phonological Training had a significant effect on spelling. The short and medium‐term effects demonstrate that it is possible substantially to reduce children's reading problems. The long‐term effects raise doubts about relying on early intervention alone.     

A Comparative Study of Three Tests of Intellectual Potential,Three Tests of Reading Achievement,and the Discrepancy Scores between Potential and Achievement

Abstract

The purposes of this study were: (a) to check the validity of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) and the Ammons (1) Quick Test (QT) against the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC); (b) to examine the interrelationship of scores on the Gray Oral Reading Test, Spache’s Diagnostic Reading Scales, and an informal reading inventory; and (c) to examine the consistency of discrepancy scores used to classify students as non-disabled, disabled, and seriously disabled readers. It was found that both the PPVT and the QT were significantly related to the WISC, but some group comparisons and many individual scores varied greatly. The tests of reading performance were also highly vulnerable. Therefore, the discrepancy scores between potential and performance, as measured by these instruments, were not consistent. The authors submit that the whole idea of assigning students to various types of reading programs on the basis of their discrepancy scores is open to serious question.     

Multicultural visions in early reading classrooms: Implications for early childhood teacher educators

Abstract

Teachers and teacher educators are faced with an urgent responsibility to support the learning of an increasingly diverse population of young children. Based on the sociocultural perspective of reading, a literature‐based approach is outlined for early reading teachers. The implications of this approach to teacher education programs are further discussed from the author's own experiences of transmitting multicultural visions to preservice teachers in a multicultural course and a literacy method course she taught. The author maintains that teacher educators are in a unique position to help early childhood teacher candidates nurture multicultural visions in their teacher education programs today, and carry these visions to their future early reading classrooms tomorrow. © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.     

Enhancing reading ability to prevent students from becoming "low-functioning deaf" as adults

Recent research on reading instruction in general and special education, collectively referred to as "scientifically based reading research," is emphasized in two new federal programs, Reading First and Early Reading First. The findings of this research, as it relates to the education of students who are deaf or hard of hearing, are reviewed. Noteworthy is the stress placed on intervening early in children's lives, focusing on active learning opportunities, teaching strategies for reading fluency, and applying teacher interventions such as miscue analysis. The urgent need for educators to identify and implement effective techniques is highlighted by the continuing problem of "low-functioning deaf" (LFD) individuals being unable to secure gainful employment absent functional reading skills.     

Teachers’ scaffolding science reading comprehension in low-income schools: how to improve achievement in science

ABSTRACT

Reading is a tool that promotes the learning of science across schooling. Scientific texts are conceptually and linguistically complex, especially for students from low-income contexts because they have neither the experience with the language nor the literacy skills to face the challenges of scientific knowledge. This study used a mix method approach to compare the cognitive scaffolding practiced by teachers during science reading activities in high- and low-performing schools. Three teachers and 141 fourth grade students from low socioeconomic background schools participated in 48 class sessions. Classes were video-recorded and transcribed. The data were analyzed using Sanchez’ Pedagogic Practice Analysis System. The results show that teachers from both types of schools continuously use reading as a tool for learning. The effective teacher uses reading with non-invasive scaffolding and varied verbal participation to elaborate knowledge, promoting literal and inferential comprehension and more opportunities for the students to construct knowledge. By contrast, less effective teachers use reading with invasive scaffolding and little verbal participation of the students to consolidate knowledge, promoting mainly literal comprehension. This study shed light on different approaches teachers use to foster reading comprehension for science learning.     

Hearing Matters More Than Seeing: A Cross-Modality Study of Statistical Learning and Reading Ability

ABSTRACT

There is growing interest in the link between implicit statistical learning (SL) and reading ability. Although learning to read involves both auditory and visual modalities, it is not known whether reading skills might be more strongly associated with auditory SL or visual SL. Here we assessed SL across both modalities in 36 typically developing children and 36 healthy adults using the classic triplet-learning paradigm. Auditory SL was significantly associated with sentence reading fluency (Woodcock Johnson III Test of Achievement) in the combined sample of children and adults after controlling for age and nonverbal intelligence. In further analysis of the child data, auditory SL was significantly associated with nonword reading accuracy (Woodcock Reading Mastery Test), a relationship which appeared to be mediated by phonological processing abilities (Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing). These findings suggest that auditory SL might contribute more strongly to certain aspects of reading development compared to visual SL.