School autonomy and educational inclusion of children with special needs: Evidence from England

In the past few decades, several countries have introduced reforms aimed at increasing school autonomy. We evaluate the effect of the introduction of autonomous academies in England on the educational trajectories of children with special educational needs. This has been done using longitudinal data on all schoolchildren in state schools in England, from the National Pupil Database. The results show that the effects of school autonomy on educational inclusion are not uniform and depend on schools’ previous performance and socio-economic composition. Schools that obtained autonomy under the control of an external sponsor (sponsored academies) were more likely to decrease the proportion of pupils with special needs and remove additional support for them. We do not observe these effects in the schools that voluntarily applied for the more autonomous status (converter academies).     

Inclusion and achievement: student achievement in secondary schools with higher and lower proportions of pupils designated as having special educational needs

This paper reports on a multi‐method study that examined the effects of including higher and lower proportions of students designated as having special educational needs on student achievement in secondary schools. It explores some of the issues involved in conducting such research and considers the extent to which newly available national data in England can be helpful in answering questions about inclusion and achievement. Questions pertaining to the effects of provision on achievement are discussed within a school reform agenda that emphasizes high academic standards, competition between schools and the identification of pupils with special educational needs.     

Heterogeneous effects of school autonomy in England

A 2010 education reform gave English schools the option to become academies, autonomous but state-funded schools. Academies can opt for two different models of governance by choosing to remain standalone schools or join an academy chain. We investigate the causal effect of the governance model on student achievement and school inputs. We find that students in academy chains have higher end-of-primary school test scores, with stronger effects for low achievers and early converter academies. School chains are more efficient than standalone academies, achieving better results while spending less overall. Survey data suggest that chains favor management changes, whereas standalone academies make changes related to educational practices.     

Diverging paths in upper secondary education: competence attainment among students with special educational needs

The main objective of specially adapted teaching in upper secondary education in Norway is to help students attain vocational or academic competence. However, a contested issue is whether it is conducive to place students with special educational needs in regular or special classes. Another question is whether boys and girls benefit to the same degree from placement in a specific type of class. The analyses presented in this article are based on data from a longitudinal study of nearly 500 adolescents with special educational needs who have been followed prospectively over 6 years. The results demonstrate that students receiving special support in regular classes obtain vocational or academic qualifications to a greater degree than students in special classes. In particular, girls benefit from placement in regular classes. This pattern does not change when the analyses control for relevant variables that are known to affect competence attainment, e.g. the students’ functional level registered at the start of upper secondary school.     

A decade of change in mainstream education for children with intellectual disabilities in the Republic of Ireland

Inclusive rather than segregated schooling has been advocated in several significant international declarations during the past two decades. Even so children with significant intellectual disabilities are at greater risk of being excluded from mainstream education, unless particular efforts are made to support them in such settings. These children and young people are more likely to be educated in special schools or in special classes within mainstream schools. In the decade from 2003 to 2013, the Republic of Ireland enacted legislation and provided additional financial resources for pupils with special educational needs, although these were more constrained during the financial crisis that Ireland experienced from 2008 onwards. A national database, updated annually, is maintained of children receiving services from specialist intellectual disability services and this enabled comparisons to be made for the enrolments of over 8000 children aged 4–19 in mainstream and special schools following the introduction of legislation and availability of additional resources. The data showed a steady increase in children with significant intellectual disabilities attending mainstream classes and a decrease in the proportion attending special schools along with a much smaller but decreasing proportion in special classes. The profile of pupils with intellectual disabilities in mainstream and special schools also changed over the 10 years with higher proportions of males, of pupils with moderate disabilities and those of primary age attending mainstream schools, whereas special schools now tend to have higher proportions of females and those of secondary school age. However, there was marked regional variation in the proportions of pupils in mainstream schools which was attributed to the availability of special schools across the State. This study demonstrates how a national data-set can be used to track the impact that policy changes and legislation designed to enhance the development of inclusive learning environments had on the number of pupils availing of mainstream opportunities. It was also possible to identify prevailing trends in types of support provided within schools and the changing pattern of provision for pupils with different levels of intellectual disability. At the broader level of international trends in policy and provision aimed at establishing inclusive learning environments, this study demonstrates the need for a common frame of reference around which the national and international conversations on educational systems can take place.     

Impact of facilities on academic performance of students with special needs in mainstreamed public schools in Southwestern Nigeria

Facilities have a great impact on academic performances of students, and inadequate facilities translate to poor performance. The study examined the availability and convenience of the facilities that were provided to students with special educational needs in mainstreamed schools. It ascertained the qualifications of teachers teaching in mainstreamed public secondary schools. It determined the relationship between availability of facilities and academic performance of students with special educational needs; and also compared the academic performance of male and female students with special educational needs. The results showed that essential facilities and materials like hand railings, hearing aids, Braille, instructional materials, and lower toilets were not available, although the few that were available (typewriters, resource rooms, wheel chairs) were in poor condition. The study showed that specialist teachers were inadequate in mainstreamed public schools in Southwestern Nigeria. There was a significant relationship between availability of facilities and academic performance of students with special educational needs. However, there was no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female students with special educational needs. The study concluded that inadequate provision of facilities and materials to mainstreamed public schools would lead to poor academic performances of students with special educational needs. Finally, adequate funding of integrated schools would help to overcome the problem of provision and maintenance of special equipment and materials for the use of students with special educational needs.     

THE ROLE OF SCHOOL LEVEL PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN OVERCOMING CUMULATIVE RISK FOR BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES IN CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND DISABILITIES

The study investigated whether school‐level protective factors could moderate the effects cumulative risk has upon behavior difficulties in children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). The sample comprised 4,288 children identified with SEND: 2,660 pupils within 248 primary schools, and 1,628 pupils within 57 secondary schools. Risk factors associated with increases in behavior difficulties over an 18‐month period were summed to a cumulative risk score. Various school‐level factors were added to multilevel models, with interaction terms computed between cumulative risk and these variables to assess their potential protective effects. The primary school model revealed a significant interaction between cumulative risk and school academic achievement in predicting behavior difficulties. Higher levels of achievement in primary schools help reduce behavior difficulties for children most at risk. The secondary school model evidenced a significant interaction between cumulative risk and school percentage of students eligible for free school meals (FSM). Lower proportions within a school of children eligible for FSM were associated with reductions in behavior difficulties for children at high levels of risk. Interventions aimed at improving school‐level academic achievement and targeting high‐risk students attending schools with large proportions of children eligible for FSM would be beneficial.     

Special educational resources in the Swedish upper secondary schools: a total population survey

This paper analyses the special educational resources in the Swedish upper secondary schools using a total population survey that covers all upper secondary schools. Special educators and special teachers together constitute the special educational resources at each school. With two types of regression models (logistic and linear regression), the study investigates which variables at school level determine the presence and availability rate of special educational resources. The main findings are that there is a great difference between public and independent schools in the presence and accessibility of special educational resources, where many independent schools do not offer special educational support for their students. It also shows that what kind of provider (public or independent school) and the size of the school are especially important variables for predicting presence of special educational resources. When analysing the variance of availability rate of special educational resources, student variables (grades from compulsory school and parental educational level) on the school level, together with school size, are especially important.     

Social acceptance and the choosing of favourite classmates: a comparison between students with special educational needs and typically developing students in a context of full inclusion

Empirical data on the effects of inclusion regarding the social participation of typically developing students and those with special educational needs are still controversial. While some studies suggest that the more extensive the inclusion, the higher the social position of students with special educational needs, evidence from other studies indicates that the full inclusion of students with special educational needs into ordinary schools is not sufficient, per se, to increase their social participation. In this study, we set out to investigate the social position of students with special educational needs and typically developing students studying in regular classroom environments in Italian primary and secondary schools. Given that being accepted is far from the same as being chosen, besides examining rates of acceptance and rejection, we also considered the choices made by students regarding their favourite classmates. The results demonstrated that students with special educational needs are significantly less accepted and are very rarely chosen as favoured classmates by their typically developing counterparts. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Departmental differences in attitudes to special educational needs in the secondary school

As trends in favour of inclusion continue, questions arise concerning the extent to which teachers in mainstream schools feel prepared for the task of meeting pupils' special educational needs. Little previous research has considered how the subject taught impacts upon the attitudes of mainstream teachers towards pupils with special educational needs. In this article, Jean Ellins, research fellow at the University of Birmingham, and Jill Porter, senior lecturer at the University of Bath, report on their research into the attitudes of teachers in one mainstream secondary school. Building a detailed case study using documents, records of pupil progress, an interview and a questionnaire using a Likert-type attitude scale and open-ended questions, these researchers set out to explore distinctions between the attitudes of teachers working in different departments. Their findings suggest that the teachers of the core subjects, English, mathematics and science, had less positive attitudes than their colleagues. Further, pupils with special educational needs made least progress in science where teacher attitudes were the least positive. Jean Ellins and Jill Porter review the implications of these findings and make recommendations for future practice and further enquiry.     

Selectivity,admissions and intakes to ‘comprehensive’ schools in London,England

This study focuses on admissions criteria used for ‘comprehensive’ secondary schools in London, UK. It was found that schools whose admissions were controlled by the local authority were more likely to report giving priority to children with medical/social needs and special educational needs than were schools that controlled their own admissions; the latter were more likely to report the use of various potentially ‘creaming’ criteria. There was also more ‘selectivity’ among London comprehensive schools with autonomy over admissions, with higher proportions using potentially selective admissions criteria than in the rest of England. Moreover, it was found that schools with responsibility for their own admissions had lower proportions of pupils with special educational needs and obtained higher scores in public examination ‘league tables’ than schools whose admissions were controlled by the local authority. The findings suggest that some schools, although nominally ‘comprehensive’, appear to restrict access to certain groups of pupils.     

Learning habits of students with special needs in short‐term vocational education programmes

This research examined some characteristics of the learning habits of students with special needs and those without them in programmes of short‐term vocational education in five areas: motivation, learning and learning techniques, emotional, social and the area of self‐evaluation. The research sample consisted of 140 students from different secondary schools. The Questionnaire on the Learning Habits of Adolescents was used for the purpose of the study. The differences between the means from individual learning habit scales, between the students with special needs or without them, were discovered by one‐way analysis of variance. Basic findings of empirical research emphasise that there exist statistically significant differences between the students with special needs and the students without special needs in four areas of learning habits. Among the findings causing concern in connection with learning habits, we would like to underscore the fact that students with special needs are perceived as less efficient at and less competent in coping with learning and work tasks. These students are not familiar with effective methods and strategies for successful learning, which leads to the feelings of frustration and helplessness in case of failure. In order to cultivate an effective and supportive educational environment for students with special needs, short‐term vocational schools should develop learning/teaching models that provide a potentially powerful alternative to traditionally directed teaching approaches.     

Evaluation of a short version of the Illinois Loneliness and Social Satisfaction Scale in a sample of students with and without special educational needs – an empirical study with primary and secondary students in Austria

The first aim of this study was to evaluate the appropriateness of a short version of the Illinois Loneliness and Social Satisfaction Scale with children with special educational needs. The second aim was to explore loneliness in relation to self‐perceived social integration, school well‐being and the social self‐concept of students from primary and secondary schools, in both inclusive and regular classes. This study had 1,115 student participants (408 fourth graders and 707 seventh graders), of whom 126 were diagnosed as having special educational needs. Factor analyses confirmed a unidimensional latent factor structure. The scale showed satisfactory reliability and the validity coefficients indicated that the scale is suitable for surveys including students with special educational needs. Generally speaking, the level of self‐rated loneliness is low. Nevertheless, students with special educational needs in inclusive classes felt significantly lonelier than students without special educational needs in inclusive classes.     

An exploration of the features of effective collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants in secondary schools

This article explores notions of support and collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants (TAs) in two secondary schools in England. In particular it reviews how team members created opportunities and established collaborative practices aimed at including each other in the task of providing support for children who are described as having difficulties in learning. The data from the ethnographic study, which were collected through a variety of methods and were generated with the support and participation of teachers, heads of departments, special educational needs co‐ordinators (SENCOs) and teaching assistants, suggest that the successful inclusion of students is dependent on how schools as organisations and communities are able to support the inclusion of adults as well.     

Does the Code of Practice help secondary school SENCos to improve learning?

Tony Lingard is special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCo) in a large comprehensive secondary school. He believes that the requirements of the Code of Practice detract from his capacity to support pupils with special educational needs. Anticipating the introduction of a revised, but still significant, bureaucratic burden in the new Code, he reports his use of a questionnaire to gather the views of other secondary SENCos in his LEA. The results are challenging but compelling. Do individual education plans (IEPs) help subject teachers to address individual pupils' special educational needs? Do targets help pupils and parents to engage with priorities for learning? Would whole-school strategies for meeting special educational needs be more effective, efficient and inclusive than the current individualised system? Tony Lingard's article will prompt reflection in schools around the country as SENCos await the launch of the revised Code.     

Lost in transition: supporting Key Stage 2/3 English trainees during secondary placement

Key Stage 2/3 trainees undertake their second school placement in secondary schools having completed a placement in a primary school in the first year of their training. While trainees will have been prepared at their higher education institution, the experience itself can be daunting for reasons other than the fact that this is their first secondary placement. These reasons are discussed in this article, and focuses on how a lesson-planning document was developed at one institution to support English trainees through this placement. The aim of this article is to raise awareness in partnership schools of the specific needs of Key Stage 2/3 English trainees.     

Inclusive Practice in English Secondary Schools: Lessons learned

This paper considers how some secondary schools in England have been able to respond to the conflicting demands of school improvement policies, as measured by high academic standards and the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs. It begins with a discussion of the context in which all English schools are currently operating and a summary of the extent to which research on school effectiveness and school improvement has influenced research on inclusion and vice versa. Key findings from our work in secondary schools committed to inclusion are presented and discussed in light of teacher, subject department and whole school responses to pupil diversity. The paper concludes with a conceptualisation of inclusive schools as those that meet the dual criteria of enrolling a diverse student population and improving academic standards for all.     

Class placement and competence attainment among students with special educational needs

John Olav Myklebust is Professor of Sociology at Volda University College in Norway. In this article, he discusses his analysis of data emerging from a longitudinal study of 494 young people with special educational needs who have been followed over a period of six years. This analysis focuses on the attainments of these students during their time in upper secondary education and asks whether placement in special or ordinary mainstream class groupings is more beneficial. The results indicate that students receiving special support in ordinary classes obtain vocational or academic qualifications more often than students in special classes. Professor Myklebust pursues his analysis by looking at the influence of a number of other variables, including assessments of functional level, family stability and gender. He concludes that the relationship between attainment and placement in an ordinary classroom does not change, even when these variables are taken into account, and argues that his findings provide further support for the inclusion of learners with special educational needs in ordinary mainstream classes.     

Effectiveness of a satellite educational television program for Ethiopian secondary education

This study examined the actual practice and effectiveness of a satellite educational TV program in Ethiopian secondary schools. Participants in the survey were 228 students and 63 teachers from secondary schools. The results of the data analysis indicate that Ethiopian students and teachers scored highly in the evaluation areas. Levels of students’ general satisfaction with the satellite educational TV program were not equal for the variables of location and gender. It was also found that for students, learning demand, learning content, and class management were factors affecting their satisfaction with the satellite educational TV programs. For teachers, learning content and class management were the factors. The statistical mean difference in the satisfaction with the satellite educational TV program was between students and teachers. These findings suggest that the satellite educational TV program has the possibility of improving the quality of education in Ethiopian secondary schools.