Mastery versus ability appraisal: a developmental study of children's observations of peers' work

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that there is an age-related shift from mastery enhancement to relative ability assessment in the goal of social comparison. Children at ages 5, 7, and 10 made pictures with stickers under conditions of high or low concern with relative performance (competition/no competition) and high or low procedural ambiguity (free design/copying a drawing). The effects of the manipulations on frequency of glancing at the experimenter and the drawing were similar at all ages; competition enhanced glancing at peers, however, only at ages 7 and 10. The hypothesized shift in the function of social comparison was further supported by age differences in children's explanations for glancing at peers and by the pattern of intercorrelations between glances at the 3 targets and between glances and picture quality. The results indicate how mastery-based comparisons can promote mastery and performance and illustrate some costs older children may pay for their tendency to observe others primarily to assess relative ability.     

The effects of developmental placement and early retention on children's later scores on standardized tests

The relationship between early school retention as a result of preschool and kindergarten developmental testing and children's later academic achievement was examined. Two hundred twenty-three children were coded as Traditional, Overplaced, or “Buy a Year,” depending on their scores on the Gesell Screening Test and their subsequent school placement. Their performances on the full Gesell Developmental Test, 3rd grade New York State PEP Tests in reading and math, and the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) were compared. Those children who scored as immature on the Gesell Screening Test and who were retained a year according to the Gesell Developmental Placement Program had the lowest scores on all measures, even though they were almost a year older than the other two groups of children at the time of the PEP and SAT testing.     

A developmental perspective on full- versus part-day kindergarten and children's academic trajectories through fifth grade

Children's kindergarten experiences are increasingly taking place in full- versus part-day programs, yet important questions remain about whether there are significant and meaningful benefits to full-day kindergarten. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study's Kindergarten Cohort ( N = 13,776), this study takes a developmental approach to examining associations between kindergarten program type and academic trajectories from kindergarten (ages 4–6 years) through 5th grade (ages 9–12 years). Full-day kindergarten was associated with greater growth of reading and math skills from fall until spring of kindergarten. Initial academic benefits diminished soon after kindergarten. The fade-out of the full-day advantage is in part explained by differences in the children who attend part- and full-day kindergarten as well as school characteristics.     

Convergence of deaf children's sociometric scores and teachers' behavioral ratings

Twenty-four deaf children judged each other, using a standard sociometric technique, and were rated by their teachers. The correlations between the two sources at four assessment periods replicated previous findings of substantial convergence of teachers' behavioral ratings and children's sociometric scores, thereby extending this relationship to the population of language-impaired deaf children in residential school settings.     

Handwriting evaluation for developmental dysgraphia: Process versus product

The act of writing presents difficulties for10–30% of elementary school children. Thisstudy's objectives were to compare theabilities of digitizer-based evaluation of thehandwriting process and conventional evaluationof the handwriting product to discriminatebetween children with proficient and dysgraphichandwriting. Copied and dictated writingsamples were collected from 3rd grade students,50 with proficient and 50 with dysgraphichandwriting. Results indicated that bothdigitizer-based and conventional evaluationsdifferentiated between children with proficientand dysgraphic handwriting, and that togetherthey provided an improved understanding ofwriting difficulties. Moreover, copying anddictated writing task results differed significantly.The results demonstrate theadvantages of combining both handwritingprocess and product testing, and utilizing bothcopying and dictation tasks, in order toachieve a more comprehensive understanding andsuperior evaluation of developmentaldysgraphia.     

Rules versus analogies in children's spelling: Evidence for task dependence

Two experiments were conducted to investigate developmental changes in children's use of rime-level units of sound-to-spelling correspondence when spelling nonwords under varying task demands. In Experiment 1, nonwords were presented in isolation. Older children spelled more of the nonwords by analogy than younger children. Experiment 2 adopted versions of the clue word technique employed by Goswami (1988a) and found that significantly more analogous, rime-based responses were given to the same stimuli in both younger and older children. However, fewer analogous responses were given when the salience of the clue word was reduced by presentation of multiple target nonwords. The results suggest that while children in the early stages of development possess the ability to use rime-based units in spelling, they do not always make spontaneous use of this analogy strategy. However, when the potential to use rime-based units is highlighted by task demands, as is the case in Experiment 2 when a clue word is provided, even young children make considerable use of analogy in spelling.     

Family and classroom correlates of head start children's developmental outcomes

Program quality is an important theme for Head Start. Even staunch supporters of Head Start are concerned that too few Head Start classes are of the quality that is needed to best promote children's growth and development. This study examined relationships between classroom quality and child outcomes among 145 Head Start children from poor quality to more stimulating home environments. Results indicated that children in higher quality Head Start classrooms performed better on measures of achievement and preacademic skills, regardless of the quality of their home environment. Children from better home environments seemed to benefit more from classroom quality in the area of problem solving and reasoning than did children from less stimulating homes. Teacher characteristics such as education, experience, and attitudes were not associated with classroom quality in this group of 32 Head Start classrooms. On the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, no classroom received a rating of inadequate, but only 9% met or exceeded the score that would be considered developmentally appropriate.     

Biases in young children's communication about spatial relations: containment versus proximity

Four experiments examined 3- and 4-year-olds' ability to communicate about containment and proximity relations. One hundred twenty-eight children either described where a miniature mouse was hiding in a dollhouse or they searched for the mouse after the experimenter described where it was hiding. The mouse was always hidden with a small landmark that was either in or next to a large landmark. When describing where the mouse was hiding, children were more likely to successfully disambiguate the small landmark when it was in the large landmark (e.g., under the plant in the dresser) than when it was next to the large landmark (e.g., under the plant next to the dresser). When searching for the mouse, 3-year-olds were faster to initiate their searches when the small landmark was in the large landmark than when it was next to the large landmark. Together, these results suggest that there are informational biases in young children's spatial communication.     

Teaching concepts versus facts in developmental biology

Note from the Editor     

The reliability of test scores for the pervasive developmental disorders rating scale

The Pervasive Developmental Disorders Rating Scale (PDDRS; Eaves, 1993) is a screening instrument used in the assessment of autistic disorder. In this study, the reliability of test scores for the PDDRS was examined with three samples. The first sample consisted of 456 participants ranging in age from 1 to 12 years old and the second sample consisted of 111 participants in the 13 to 24 year‐old range. Additionally, the test‐retest reliability of scores for the PDDRS was examined with a sample of 40 participants. The results indicated that coefficient alpha for the PDDRS Total Score was adequate for screening purposes (r = .89) for both age groups. The results of the test‐retest study also suggested that PDDRS had adequate test‐retest reliability (r = .92) for the PDDRS Total Score. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 39: 605–611, 2002.     

Emotion Reactivity and Regulation in Maltreated Children: A Meta-Analysis

The many adverse effects of child maltreatment make the scientific investigation of this phenomenon a matter of vital importance. Although the relationship between maltreatment and problematic emotion reactivity and regulation has been studied, the strength and specificity of these associations are not yet clear. We examine the magnitude of the maltreatment—child-emotion reactivity/regulation link. Studies with substantiated maltreatment involving children aged up to 18 were included, along with a smaller number of longitudinal studies (58 papers reviewed, encompassing more than 11,900 children). In comparison to nonmaltreated children, maltreated children experience more negative emotions, behave in a manner indicative of more negative emotion, and display emotion dysregulation. We outline several theoretical implications of our results.     

A developmental analysis of elementary school-aged children's concepts of pride and embarrassment

Developmental changes in conditions engendering pride and embarrassment were explored. Subjects included 41 adults and 189 5-, 7-, 9-, and 11-year-old children from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Subjects were asked to report events that had made them feel proud, embarrassed, happy, and sad. Content analyses of responses concerning pride and embarrassment indicated that references to noncontingent, uncontrollable events decreased with age, but most 5-year-olds understood that feelings of pride and, to a lesser extent, embarrassment result primarily from outcomes controlled by and contingent on one's own behavior or characteristics. Responses of children in all 4 age groups and adults suggest that an audience is important for both pride and embarrassment, but particularly for embarrassment. An audience and external reinforcement were more important in children's than in adults' reports of pride. Developmental change was found in the standards used to evaluate emotional experiences; references to social comparison increased with age and references to mastery decreased.     

White children's prosocial behavior toward White versus Black peers: The role of children's effortful control and parents' implicit racial attitudes

White children's effortful control (EC), parents' implicit racial attitudes, and their interaction were examined as predictors of children's prosocial behavior toward White versus Black recipients. Data were collected from 171 White children (55% male, M_age = 7.13 years, SD = 0.92) and their parent in 2017. Prosocial behavior toward White peers was predicted by children's higher EC. When predicting prosocial behavior toward Black peers and prosocial disparity (the difference between White and Black recipients), parents' implicit racial attitudes moderated the relation between children's EC and children's prosocial behavior. Specifically, children's EC was positively associated with prosocial behavior toward Black peers (and negatively related to inequity in prosocial behavior) only when parents exhibited less implicit racial bias.     

Predictors of student success in Higher Education: Secondary school internal scores versus national exams

In many countries entrance to Higher Education is determined by the performance of students in secondary school and/or the scores obtained in national exams. The relative weight of these two scores on the admission decision is a relevant policy topic, given its implication on who is admitted to university. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relative predictive power of these two measures on the academic performance of students in Higher Education. It makes use of a dataset of Bachelor students from Portuguese Higher Education institutions with detailed information about their characteristics and past achievement results. The measure of academic achievement considered is the Bachelor's final average score. The main finding is that the scores given by teachers in secondary school are better predictors of subsequent performance than the access exam scores. The relevance of factors like working status, social support and gender vary with the reputation of the degree and the type of Higher Education institution, university versus polytechnic. A noteworthy result is that the added predictive contribution of parents' education is always negligible when past success measures are already taken into account.     

Classification consistency when scores are converted to grades: examination marks versus moderated school assessments

In educational systems, concern has been expressed about the accuracy of classification when marks are aligned to grades or levels. In particular, it has been claimed that a school assessment‐based grading would have much greater levels of accuracy than one based on examination scores. This paper investigates classification consistency by analysing five years of examination and assessment data in the subject areas of English and mathematics, and creating simulated parallel‐test observed scores at varying reliabilities (based on classical test theory assumptions). While grades created from moderated school assessments did show greater agreement than those from examination scores, the improvement was only modest.     

‘The funeral’: a study of children's shared meaning‐making and its developmental significance

This article argues the need to examine communication in joint play situations rather than individual assessments in solitary play situations when children's development is focused. Informed by Bakhtin's dialogical and Moscovici's interactionist perspectives, observations were made of the interaction between two girls, aged 3½ and 4, playing at holding a funeral ceremony, in the setting of a Swedish pre‐school. The analysis shows that new knowledge occurred through negotiations of appropriate actions in play. The children's interactions resulted in shared meaning‐making of the funeral as a ritual of revival.     

Hyperactive children's underuse of learning time: correction by stimulant treatment

This study investigates the effects of methylphenidate (Ritalin) on hyperactive children's performance on a paired-associate learning task under 3 presentation rates (4, 8, and 12 sec per item). The total-time hypothesis states that a fixed amount of time is necessary to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless of the number of trials into which that time is divided. In a double-blind crossover design, the total-time hypothesis was supported by performance in a drug state, but not by performance in a placebo state, where slower presentation rates were not utilized effectively. These results are discussed in terms of inattention in the placebo state and improved attention and use of learning time in the drug state. The methodology presented is suggested as a means of assessing attentional deficits as well as providing a diagnostic procedure for objectively evaluating the appropriateness of stimulant treatment for children referred for symptoms of hyperactivity.