Development and preliminary validation of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI)

Abstract

The purpose of this research project was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of mental toughness in cricket, using a multi-method research design. Two qualitative studies in which current and former cricketers' (n = 16) perceptions of the key components of mental toughness in cricket and the suitability of an item pool to target those key components (n = 9) were assessed. We then conducted two quantitative studies to examine both the within- and between-network properties of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI) using confirmatory factor analysis and correlations. Support for the existence of a five-factor, 15-item model was revealed with three independent samples of cricketers; two contained cricketers from several different countries (n = 285 and 285), whereas one contained Australian cricketers only (n = 433). Each of the five subscales (affective intelligence, attentional control, resilience, self-belief, and desire to achieve) were positively correlated with dispositional flow, hardiness, and resilience and negatively correlated with athlete burnout. Although requiring replication and extension, the results of the present study provide preliminary support for the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the CMTI.     

Examining the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on the psychosocial experiences of minor hockey athletes

ABSTRACT

Models of positive youth development suggest that athletes may be influenced by parent education programmes; however, there is little research examining the impact of such programmes on athlete outcomes. This study examined the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on athlete outcomes among minor hockey players over three years. This study consisted of cross-sectional and longitudinal online surveys measuring athletes’ positive and negative developmental experiences, prosocial and antisocial behaviours, parental support and pressure, and sport enjoyment and commitment. Athletes completed at least one online survey during the study period (N = 366; 84.2% males; 14–19 years of age; M = 15.4 years), and 83 athletes completed multiple surveys for longitudinal analyses. Cross-sectional results comparing athletes in leagues adopting the programme at different time points indicated significant differences in prosocial behaviours towards teammates. Multilevel longitudinal analyses revealed improvements in athletes’ antisocial behaviours towards opponents, initiative, goal setting, and cognitive skills over time, regardless of whether they were in a league that implemented the programme. However, athletes in leagues that implemented the programme during the study reported greater improvements in antisocial behaviours towards opponents, and there were trends with respect to improved personal and social skills. These findings provide suggestions to improve the delivery and impact of parent education programmes in youth sport.     

Influence of sport type and interdependence on the developmental experiences of youth male athletes

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between sport type, interdependence (task and outcome), and the developmental experiences of select male basketball players (n=129) and middle-distance runners (n=83) aged 14–17 years. Athletes completed the Youth Experiences Survey 2.0 (Hansen & Larson, 2005) and a modified measure assessing task and outcome interdependence (Van der Vegt, Emans, & Van de Vliert, 1998 Vliert, 2001). Hierarchical multiple regression determined that basketball players reported higher rates of teamwork and social skills, adult networks and social capital, and negative experiences. Furthermore, outcome interdependence was a predictor of identity exploration, initiative, emotional regulation, positive relationships, teamwork and social skills, and adult networks and social capital experiences independent of sport type. Although different sports may provide different learning environments, the developmental experiences youth garner may be more strongly influenced by how the people involved interact (outcome interdependence) than by the type of sport.     

Mindfulness mediates the relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing in cyclists

The purpose of this study was to examine the direction and magnitude of the relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing and to explore whether mindfulness mediated this relationship. The design of the study was cross-sectional using self-report data. We recruited 142 recreational cyclists (female?=?32) via online cycling forums. We asked participants to complete measures of mental toughness, dispositional mindfulness, and pain catastrophizing. Following the initial screening of data and the identification of non-normality and outliers, we calculated robust correlations and regressions to examine the size and direction of effects. Results revealed that mindfulness partially mediated a moderate negative relationship between mental toughness and pain catastrophizing. These results are consistent with prior theory regarding positive traits and their negative association with pain catastrophizing. Unique contributions included showing that mental toughness and mindfulness are positively associated and that mindfulness is negatively associated with pain catastrophizing in this sample of cyclists.     

Mental toughness profiles and their relations with achievement goals and sport motivation in adolescent Australian footballers

Abstract

The aims of this study were to identify the mental toughness profiles of adolescent Australian footballers and to explore the relations between the mental toughness clusters and achievement goals and sport motivation. A total of 214 non-elite, male Australian footballers aged 16–18 years (mean = 16.8, s = 0.7) provided self-reports of mental toughness, achievement goals, and sport motivation. Cluster analysis supported the presence of two-groups in which players evidenced moderate and high levels of all four mental toughness subscales. Significant multivariate effects were observed for achievement goals and sport motivation with the high mental toughness group favouring both mastery- and performance-approach goals and self-determined as well as extrinsic motivational tendencies. The results suggest that adolescent Australian footballers' self-perceptions of mental toughness fall within two clusters involving high and moderate forms of all four components, and that these profiles show varying relations with achievement goals (particularly mastery-approach) and sport motivation.     

Relationships between talent development environments and mental toughness: The role of basic psychological need satisfaction

ABSTRACT

Although the talent development environment and mental toughness are critical for athletes to realise their athletic potential, there is a dearth of literature on whether the talent development environment can enhance mental toughness among those athletes who are identified with athletic potential (i.e., talented athletes). Drawing on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), this research examined the relationships between the talent development environment, basic psychological needs satisfaction and mental toughness. Talented athletes (n = 261) completed a survey measuring key features of the talent development environment, needs satisfaction and mental toughness. The results of structural equation modelling indicated that three environmental factors (i.e., long-term development focus, holistic quality preparation and communication) were positive predictors of needs satisfaction, which then positively predicted mental toughness. The talent development environment may be considered for promoting talented athletes’ mental toughness.     

运动员的心理坚韧性研究：结构模型、影响因素及作用效果

采用文献资料法,回顾了运动员心理坚韧性的相关研究。介绍心理坚韧性4种较新的结构模型,梳理心理坚韧性的影响因素,包括人口统计学变量、教练员行为、幽默风格、自我意识等,分析心理坚韧性的效应,包括运动倦怠、情绪调节策略、流畅特质等,指出未来研究者应积极开展心理坚韧积极的纵向研究,并注重考察情境因素对心理坚韧性的影响,探究其神经机制,关注其消极作用,进行团体心理坚韧性研究。旨在为运动领域中心理坚韧性的进一步研究提供一定参考。     

A meta-study of qualitative research on mental toughness development

Mental toughness (MT) is considered a necessary ingredient for high-level performance. Unsurprisingly, scholarly interest in the development of mental toughness has increased over the past decade, with much of this work informed by qualitative designs. No study to date has systematically reviewed and integrated this body of qualitative research on MT development. The primary purpose of this study was to create an integrated theoretical framework that incorporates extant MT development research in sport and performance settings. Three subsequent aims were to (a) systematically review and evaluate the qualitative literature regarding key developmental factors and processes for MT; (b) synthesise knowledge of key developmental factors and processes for MT; and (c) generate an integrated framework that can inform future research and advancement in theory with regard to MT development. Following a systematic search of online journals, search engines, and databases, 10 papers met the criteria for inclusion and were retained. These studies served as the primary data for meta-data, meta-method, and meta-theory analyses, which were integrated using a meta-synthesis approach. Four key themes were identified from the existing qualitative evidence: personal characteristics, interactions with environment, progressive development, and breadth of experience. These unique themes were integrated with existing theory to propose a bioecological model of MT development that encompasses interdependent interactions among the person, proximal processes, context, and time. We describe how this model can be used as a heuristic for research and practice, and underscore the importance of methodological diversity for future work on the development of MT.     

An in-depth appraisal of career termination experiences in professional cricket

This qualitative study explored the career termination experiences of 9 male, retired professional cricketers between the ages of 28 and 40 (mean value 34, s = 4.65 m). The participants took part in retrospective, semi-structured interviews. Data from the interviews were inductively content analysed within three transition phases of the retirement process: reasons for retirement, factors affecting adaptation and reactions to retirement. The reasons for retirement were multicausal with the majority of the participants highlighting contractual pressures and a lack of communication as important precursors to retirement. Three main themes accounted for the factors affecting adaptation: a limited pursuit of other interests, developmental experiences and coping strategies. In terms of reactions to retirement, all of the participants reflected negatively on the termination of their career, with a sense of loss and resentment characterising the post-retirement period. The findings illustrated the sport-specific nature of career termination in professional cricket and added further support to the emerging consensus that the distinction between voluntary and involuntary retirement is, at best, unclear.     

‘Nice girls don't play cricket’: the theory of established and outsider relations and perceptions of sexuality and class amongst female cricketers

The purpose of this article is to explore divisions between female cricketers in the UK utilizing Elias and Scotson's theory of established and outsider relations (Elias, N., and J. Scotson, eds. The Established and the Outsiders. Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2008). This article begins by discussing the adoption of the theory of established and outsider relations within sport to a variety of established and outsider figurations, particularly those focusing on gender relations in sport. The focus of the article is on an outsider group, female cricketers and seeks to explore divisions between them as a characteristic of being an outsider group within the context of an established–outsider figuration. The article draws on ethnographic data with an U15 girls' county cricket team alongside semi-structured interviews with 31 female cricketers. The data presented identifies that power relations exist between female cricketers, specifically in relation to their perceptions of sexuality and class in cricket. The article concludes by suggesting ways in which the theory of established and outsider relations could be developed to explore the divisions of power between outsider groups.     

Mentale Toughness im Sport

The present article reviews the previous literature on mental toughness in sport. The review demonstrates that qualitative researchers have been able to establish conceptual clarity and provide guidance for operationalizing the concept. As a consequence, several quantitative questionnaires have been developed beyond the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI). Meanwhile, there is preliminary evidence for the validity and reliability of these instruments. Moreover, researchers showed that mental toughness is associated with higher achievement levels or performance outcomes in elite athletes. Regarding the underlying mechanisms, prior research indicated that mentally tough athletes use more positive coping strategies. Although researchers agree that mental toughness is a rather stable construct, experimental research showed that mental skill training influenced mental toughness in a positive fashion. To date, there is a great need for more quantitative, longitudinal and experimental research. Also, a biopsychological approach offers an interesting avenue for future studies.     

The development and maintenance of mental toughness: perceptions of elite performers

Seven participants from a previous study (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) agreed to be interviewed about the development of mental toughness. We also aimed to determine whether mental toughness requires maintenance. Semistructured interviews were conducted to elicit the participants' perceptions of how mental toughness is cultivated and retained. Findings indicated that the development of mental toughness is a long-term process that encompasses a multitude of underlying mechanisms that operate in a combined, rather than independent, fashion. In general, these perceived underlying mechanisms related to many features associated with a motivational climate (e.g. enjoyment, mastery), various individuals (i.e. coaches, peers, parents, grandparents, siblings, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates), experiences in and outside sport, psychological skills and strategies, and an insatiable desire and internalized motives to succeed. It was also reported that once mental toughness had been developed, three perceived underlying mechanisms were required to maintain this construct: a desire and motivation to succeed that was insatiable and internalized, a support network that included sporting and non-sporting personnel, and effective use of basic and advanced psychological skills. Practical implications and future avenues of research are discussed.     

Ties That Bond: Youth Sport as a Vehicle for Social Identity and Positive Youth Development

An emerging area of research has focused on understanding how the group dynamics of a sport team influence positive youth development (PYD). The identities that youth form through their membership in sport teams (i.e., social identities) have been found to influence teammate behavior and team performance. Yet, minimal work exists on social identity and PYD in youth sport. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between social identity and PYD in sport. Method: Youth engaged in recreational sport (N = 219; M_age = 11.61 years, SD = 1.39 years) completed measures of social identity and PYD in sport. The social identity measure assessed 3 dimensions including ingroup ties (IGT; perceptions of similarity, bonding, belongingness), cognitive centrality (importance of being a team member), and ingroup affect (IGA; feelings associated with group membership). A regression analysis was performed separately for 4 PYD outcomes (personal and social skills, goal setting, initiative, negative experiences) with the 3 dimensions of social identity entered as predictors. Results: Regression analyses revealed that IGT and IGA were positively associated with personal and social skills (R² Adj. = .29). Further, IGT predicted initiative (R² Adj. = .16), whereas IGA was positively associated with goal setting (R² Adj. = .17) and negatively associated with negative experiences (R² Adj. = .08). Conclusion: The findings extend previous research highlighting the benefits of social identity on teammate behavior and team performance and demonstrate how social identity may contribute to PYD through sport.     

The effect of adolescents' sports clubs participation on self-reported mental and physical conditions and future expectations

Abstract

Sports clubs create conditions for people of all ages to pursue a healthy lifestyle through exercise in sports and attend to constructive pedagogical work which creates much value for society. This study investigates the relationship between adolescents' sports clubs participation and self-reported mental and physical conditions and future expectations. The participants were 10,987 pupils in the final three years of their compulsory education in Iceland (aged 14–16 years). The participants completed questionnaires administered to students in the classroom relating to health and behaviour. The results indicate that participation in sports clubs influences adolescents positively; adolescents who work hard at sport not only believe they are in better mental and physical condition, they also believe they can succeed in other areas such as their studies. Sports clubs promote positive influence on adolescents' mental and physical conditions and their future expectations toward work and happiness. It can be concluded that participation in organised sports clubs affects the participants in a positive way.     

MODES OF PHILOSOPHIC INQUIRY CONCERNING SPORT: SOME REFLECTIONS ON METHOD

This article considers the social construction of mental toughness in line with prevailing social attitudes towards success and dominance in elite sport. Critical attention is drawn to the research literature which has sought to conceptualise mental toughness and the idealistic rhetoric and metaphor with which it has done so. The concept of mental toughness currently reflects an elitist ideal, constructed along the lines of the romantic narrative of the ‘Hollywood hero’ athlete. In contrast, the mental and moral virtues which should form the basis of mental toughness are often neglected when an athlete ‘fails’. Currently, mental toughness exists as a characteristic used to describe successful athletes and is only applied in hindsight. Finally, we recommend that the morally problematic association of mental toughness (within the media, society, and the research community) with ultimate success needs to be removed in order to rescue the concept from the elitist discourses which currently surround and suffocate it.     

体育专业大学生领悟社会支持、应对策略与心理压力三因素之间的结构方程模型研究

随着社会的发展,大学生心理压力越来越受到社会的关注。选取342名体育专业大学生作为测试对象,选用领悟社会支持量表、简易应对方式问卷和体育专业大学生压力测评量表进行测量,使用结构方程模型分析心理压力、应对策略、社会支持间的关系及作用机制,构建体育专业大学生领悟社会支持、应对策略及心理压力之间的结构方程模型。最终的理想模型为GFI、AGFI、NFI、IFI、TLI、CFI均大于0.90,χ2/df小于3,RMSEA小于0.80。研究结果还显示:消极应对策略与心理压力呈显著正相关;家庭支持、其他支持与心理压力呈显著负相关;积极应对策略与社会支持呈显著正相关;应对策略在领悟社会支持与心理压力间起到了部分中介作用。因此,应该培养体育专业大学生的社会交往和领悟社会支持的能力,培养他们采用积极的应对策略,进而缓解心理压力。     

The relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow

Abstract

This article tested the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow. A sample of 135 athletes (M age=20.81 years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing questionnaires to assess MT and dispositional flow. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between total MT and global flow scores (r=0.65, p <0.001). Correlations between total MT and dispositional flow subscales were all found to be significant and positive, ranging from 0.26 to 0.68. Correlations between global flow and MT subscales were also all significant and positive, ranging between 0.43 and 0.65. Linear regression analyses found MT subscales to account for 45% of the variance in disposition flow, and flow subscales to account for 50% of the variance in MT. These results suggest a reciprocal relationship between MT and flow.     

Advancing mental toughness research and theory using personal construct psychology

This review is designed to advance current conceptualizations of mental toughness in sport as well as identify avenues for future research by offering a fresh perspective using Kelly's (1955/1991) personal construct psychology (PCP). After reviewing sport-general and sport-specific research contributing to current perspectives on mental toughness, we highlight the need for theoretically driven research in the area. Following this, we provide an overview PCP and offer a conceptual model grounded in PCP which attempts to organize the knowledge base as well as provide a platform for future research. In integrating previous research with PCP, we propose a construct definition in which the multidimensional nature of mental toughness, its usefulness for dealing with and thriving through both positively and negatively construed situations, and the processes by which this occurs are highlighted. Specifically, mental toughness is defined as a collection of values, attitudes, emotions, and cognitions that influence the way in which an individual approaches, responds to, and appraises demanding events to consistently achieve his or her goals. To conclude, methodological and conceptual limitations associated with previous research are examined and the PCP model of mental toughness presented here is employed to identify avenues for future research.     

Development and validation of the Perceived Game-Specific Soccer Competence Scale

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to create a valid, self-reported, game-specific soccer competence scale. A structural model of perceived competence, performance measures and motivation was tested as the basis for the scale. A total of 1321 soccer players (261 females, 1060 males) ranging from 12 to 15 years (13.4 ± 1.0 years) participated in the study. They completed the Perceived Game-Specific Soccer Competence Scale (PGSSCS), self-assessments of tactical skills and motivation, as well as technical and speed and agility tests. Results of factor analyses, tests of internal consistency and correlations between PGSSCS subscales, performance measures and motivation supported the reliability and validity of the PGSSCS. The scale can be considered a suitable instrument to assess perceived game-specific competence among young soccer players.