Precompetitive anxiety and motor performance: A psychophysiological examination

Male volunteer subjects (27) completed a 5‐week habituation period during which practise was undertaken on three motor performance tests. Tests were of serial reaction time, visuomotor ability and muscular power. Following stabilization of performance subjects entered an experimental period where they performed the tests before an evaluative audience on one occasion, and against a matched opponent, also before an evaluative audience on the final occasion. Preperformance measures were obtained of neuroendocrine activity, anticipatory heart rate and state anxiety. Significant precompeti‐tion elevations in state anxiety, heart rate and adrenaline levels were observed, supporting the notion that the exposure was perceived as stressful by subjects. Significant correlations were obtained between adrenaline levels and both state and trait anxiety scores. Results showed a significant increase in performance compared to habituation levels for all three tests in the audience condition. In the competitive situation against a matched opponent, performance level for the visuomotor and power tests declined significantly compared to the previous session performed before an audience. Serial reaction time performance showed a continuing upward trend, although failing to achieve significance. Changes in performance are discussed with reference to cue‐utilization explanations and broader cognitive resource limitations.     

Audience Size and Trait Anxiety Effects Upon State Anxiety and Motor Performance

This study was designed to investigate how a personal disposition factor (trait anxiety) and a situational factor (number of observers) affect state anxiety and motor performance. Thirty high and 30 low trait-anxious (Spielberger's STAI) female subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions: alone, two evaluative observers, five or six evaluative observers. Subjects performed 30 massed 10-sec trials on the pursuit rotor task under their assigned treatment conditions and then completed the STAI state anxiety scale. Trait anxiety significantly affected both state anxiety and pursuit rotor performance but no audience main effects or interaction effects were statistically significant. The results were interpreted as supporting some predictions from Spielberger's trait-state anxiety theory while contradicting others.     

Exercise, plasma catecholamine concentrations and decision-making performance of soccer players on a soccer-specific test.

The main aim of this study was to compare the decision-making performance of college soccer players on a soccer-specific, tachistoscopically presented test, at rest and while exercising at their adrenaline threshold and at their maximum power output. These were determined following an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. After the initial maximum power test, participants (n = 9) were allowed 10 habituation trials on the soccer decision-making test. Participants' decision-making performance was tested at rest, while cycling at a power output that had previously been determined to elicit their adrenaline threshold and while cycling at maximum power output. Accuracy and speed of decision were the dependent variables. A one-way repeated-measures analysis of variance showed no significant effect of exercise on accuracy, and showed speed of decision to be significantly affected by exercise. Tukey post-hoc tests showed that speed of decision at rest was significantly slower than in the other two conditions, which did not differ significantly from one another. Based on allocatable resources theories of arousal and performance, we conclude that the adrenaline threshold may be indicative of increases in the resources available to the individual. Furthermore, we considered that exercise at maximum power output may only induce a moderate rather than a high level of arousal.     

Exercise,plasma catecholamine concentrations and decision-making performance of soccer players on a soccer-specific test

The main aim of this study was to compare the decision-making performance of college soccer players on a soccer-specific, tachistoscopically presented test, at rest and while exercising at their adrenaline threshold and at their maximum power output. These were determined following an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. After the initial maximum power test, participants (n= 9) were allowed 10 habituation trials on the soccer decision-making test. Participants' decision-making performance was tested at rest, while cycling at a power output that had previously been determined to elicit their adrenaline threshold and while cycling at maximum power output. Accuracy and speed of decision were the dependent variables. A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance showed no significant effect of exercise on accuracy, and showed speed of decision to be significantly affected by exercise. Tukey post-hoc tests showed that speed of decision at rest was significantly slower than in the other two conditions, which did not differ significantly from one another. Based on allocatable resources theories of arousal and performance, we conclude that the adrenaline threshold may be indicative of increases in the resources available to the individual. Furthermore, we considered that exercise at maximum power output may only induce a moderate rather than a high level of arousal.     

“Best” versus “Average” Individual Scores

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to determine if the presence of spectators when learning a complex motor task affected the performance of high- and low-anxious subjects. Forty-eight high- and 48 low-anxious subjects learned a coincident timing task alone or in the presence of an audience. Once the task was learned to a criterion, subjects performed 10 trials alone or in the presence of an audience. Palmar sweat gland activity was measured by counting the number of active sweat glands from a plastic mold. Absolute error found the mode of learning had no effect on performance. Absolute error intravariance, however, indicated that subjects who learned the task in the presence of an audience performed less consistently alone than subjects who performed in the presence of an audience. The anxiety level of the subject did not interact with the performance. Palmar sweat gland results showed increased arousal when in the presence of an audience.     

The relationship between evaluative concerns and sport competition state anxiety among youth skiers

Thirty-four youth competitive skiers (mean age = 13.74 years) completed measures of social evaluative concern and competitive anxiety. Consistent with past research, regression analyses showed that cognitive anxiety was related to performance-specific evaluative concerns. However, contrary to current conceptualizations of sport competition anxiety, somatic anxiety was correlated with concerns about evaluation of other non-performance aspects of ski racing. Competitive skiers were most concerned about parents' and friends' evaluations of their performance, and other competitors' and friends' evaluations of their skiing in general. These findings are discussed in relation to the theory and management of sport competition state anxiety.     

The relationship between evaluative concerns and sport competition state anxiety among youth skiers

Thirty-four youth competitive skiers (mean age = 13.74 years) completed measures of social evaluative concern and competitive anxiety. Consistent with past research, regression analyses showed that cognitive anxiety was related to performance-specific evaluative concerns. However, contrary to current conceptualizations of sport competition anxiety, somatic anxiety was correlated with concerns about evaluation of other non-performance aspects of ski racing. Competitive skiers were most concerned about parents' and friends' evaluations of their performance, and other competitors' and friends' evaluations of their skiing in general. These findings are discussed in relation to the theory and management of sport competition state anxiety.     

射击运动员赛前焦虑的研究

研究的目的在于调查31名射击运动员赛前焦虑与性别、状态自信心及运动技能水平之间的关系。所有的被试要求在比赛前测试竞赛状态焦虑量表(简称CSAI-2)。结果表明，比赛发挥好的运动员表现出最低的认知状态焦虑、躯体状态焦虑和最高的状态自信心；状态自信心是区分优秀射击运动员与一般射击运动员的良好指标，性别影响着运动员赛前的躯体状态焦虑，射击运动员的最好成绩与高自信心和低焦虑水平相联系。     

The effects of cognitive and somatic anxiety and self-confidence on components of performance during competition

This study considered the influence of competitive anxiety and self-confidence state responses upon components of performance. Basketball players (n=12) were trained to self-report their cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence as a single response on several occasions immediately before going on court to play. Performance was video-recorded and aspects of performance that could be characterized as requiring either largely anaerobic power (height jumped) or working memory (successful passes and assists) were measured. Intra-individual performance scores were computed from these measures and the data from seven matches were subjected to regression analyses and then hierarchical regression analyses. The results indicated that, as anticipated, somatic anxiety positively predicted performance that involved anaerobic demands. Self-confidence, and not cognitive anxiety, was the main predictor of performance scores with working memory demands. It would appear that different competitive state responses exert differential effects upon aspects of actual performance. Identifying these differences will be valuable in recommending intervention strategies designed to facilitate performance.     

Self-presentation origins of choking: evidence from separate pressure manipulations

Whether self-presentation is involved in the choking process remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to determine the role of self-presentation concerns on the frequency of choking within the context of a recently proposed self-presentation model. Experienced field hockey players (N = 45) were randomly assigned to one of five groups (i.e., performance-contingent monetary incentive, video camera placebo, video camera self-presentation, audience, or combined pressure), before taking penalty strokes in low- and high-pressure phases. Results indicated that groups exposed to self-presentation manipulations experienced choking, whereas those receiving motivational pressure treatments decreased anxiety and increased performance under pressure. Furthermore, cognitive state anxiety mediated the relationship between the self-presentation group and performance. These findings provide quantitative support for the proposed self-presentation model of choking, while also holding implications for anxiety manipulations in future sport psychology research.     

The effects of cognitive and somatic anxiety and self-confidence on components of performance during competition.

This study considered the influence of competitive anxiety and self-confidence state responses upon components of performance. Basketball players (n = 12) were trained to self-report their cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence as a single response on several occasions immediately before going on court to play. Performance was video-recorded and aspects of performance that could be characterized as requiring either largely anaerobic power (height jumped) or working memory (successful passes and assists) were measured. Intra-individual performance scores were computed from these measures and the data from seven matches were subjected to regression analyses and then hierarchical regression analyses. The results indicated that, as anticipated, somatic anxiety positively predicted performance that involved anaerobic demands. Self-confidence, and not cognitive anxiety, was the main predictor of performance scores with working memory demands. It would appear that different competitive state responses exert differential effects upon aspects of actual performance. Identifying these differences will be valuable in recommending intervention strategies designed to facilitate performance.     

A test of processing efficiency theory in a team sport context

In this study, we tested some key postulates of Eysenck and Calvo's processing efficiency theory in a team sport. The participants were 12 elite male volleyball players who were followed throughout the course of a competitive season. Self-report measures of pre-match and in-game cognitive anxiety and mental effort were collected in groups of players high and low in dispositional anxiety. Player performance was determined from the statistical analysis of match-play. Sets were classified according to the point spread separating the two teams into one of three levels of criticality. Game momentum was also analysed to determine its influence on in-game state anxiety. Significant differences in in-game cognitive anxiety were apparent between high and low trait anxiety groups. An interaction between anxiety grouping and momentum condition was also evident in cognitive anxiety. Differences in set criticality were reflected in significant elevations in mental effort, an effect more pronounced in dispositionally high anxious performers. Consistent with the predictions of processing efficiency theory, mental effort ratings were higher in high trait-anxious players in settings where their performance was equivalent to that of low trait-anxious performers. The usefulness of processing efficiency theory as an explanatory framework in sport anxiety research is discussed in the light of these findings.     

表象训练提高大学生竞技武术套路竞赛能力的研究

以表象训练的方法作为理论基础,以山西中医学院参加民族传统体育项目的大学生集训队作为研究对象。通过文献研究、竞赛状态焦虑问卷调查和训练实验,对表象训练实验前后的问卷数据和比赛后的得分进行统计分析。结果表明,表象训练能够提高大学生中低等难度武术套路的比赛能力,有效降低大学生的认知躯体状态焦虑水平和躯体状态焦虑水平,并显著提高状态自信心,有助于大学生在武术套路比赛中较为稳定的发挥。表象训练是提升大学生武术套路训练和比赛能力的重要手段。     

Impact of a Simulated Stress Training Program on the Tactical Shooting Performance of SWAT Trainees

ABSTRACT

Purpose: To create a high-stress shooting among the crowd (SAC) program and to examine its effectiveness in reducing SWAT trainees’ stress level and their shooting performance in a simulated hostage-rescue situation. Method: After the SAC program was created, it was evaluated using a pretest and posttest experimental design: 98 young male SWAT trainees were randomly divided into experiment and control groups, with the former group trained in hostage rescue, shooting with real persons (high stress), and the latter group trained with “dummy” men (low stress); training for both lasted three days. Their shooting performance was assessed by a tactical shooting test in both high- and low-stress tests in a counterbalanced order, before and after the training, and monitored during the training, as were their stress levels by a set of physical (heart rate [HR] and heart rate recovery time [HRRt]), psychological (salivary cortisol and α-amylase), and self-reported anxiety measures. Results: The SAC program created needed high-stress for hostage rescue situations as reflected in increased physical, psychological, and anxiety scores and reduced shooting performance. Even with short SAC training, SWAT trainees’ capacity in handling high stress and tactical shooting performance were significantly improved. HR, HRRt, and anxiety tests have been found to be effective in monitoring stress and should be a part of future SWAT training. Conclusion: A SAC program involving real people was created, and its effectiveness was confirmed using a pretest and posttest experimental design.     

耐力项目练习者在超大强度运动中儿茶酚胺类激素的反应

为了比较男女耐力项目练习者在一次超最大强度运动时的交感肾上腺髓质活动水平。对14名(男女各7名)从事多年长跑训练的练习者，在运动前、运动后即刻和运动停止后5min分别采血测定肾上腺素(E)和去甲肾上腺素(NE)水平。男生组在Wingate试验中显示较高的运动水平，而有关E和NE，男女两组没有显著差异。这些结果表明男女长跑练习者在Wingate试验中的交感神经活动水平和肾上腺髓质的分泌能力是相似的。     

Relationships between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive and motor subcomponents of performance

This study examined the relationship between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive (i.e. digit span) and motor (i.e. perceptuo-motor speed) subcomponents of performance in an experimental group of hockey players during the period leading up to an important hockey match, and also in a control group of hockey players before a routine training session. Using a 'time-to-event' experimental paradigm, an increase in somatic anxiety 20 min before the hockey match was accompanied by improved perceptuo-motor speed performance. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed that somatic anxiety was negatively related to digit span performance, whilst somatic anxiety and self-confidence were positively related to perceptuo-motor speed performance. These findings suggest that somatic anxiety may be an important source of performance variance.     

Measurement error in short-term power testing in young people

The aim of this study was to examine the consistency or reproducibility of measuring cycling peak power in children and adults. Twenty-seven pre-pubertal girls and boys and 27 female and male physical education students (age 9.8 +/- 0.5 and 24.4 +/- 4.3 years, respectively; mean +/- s) participated in the study. All participants performed five tests over 15 days and underwent a habituation session before the study. Each test included four sprints against four different braking forces. We found that braking forces of 7.5% of body weight in children and 10% of body weight in adults were too high for most of the participants to elicit maximal cycling power. Unlike the children, the physical education students improved their performance between session 1 and session 2 (1025 +/- 219 vs 1069 +/- 243 W; P < 0.001). Therefore, to obtain reproducible measures of cycling peak power, a habituation session including a complete test protocol (i.e. warm-up plus three sprints) is highly recommended. When the protocol included three sprints in children and at least two sprints in adults, measurement of cycling peak power was found to be highly reliable (test-retest coefficient of variation approximately 3%). Finally, to avoid performance fluctuations, especially over several consecutive evaluations (e.g. longitudinal studies), it is necessary to maintain high motivation in children.     

冥想训练对美国中学游泳选手训练后的焦虑、心境状态及心率恢复的影响

研究旨在探讨心理整理对中学旅游选手训练后恢复情况的影响。共有７０名（男４２名,女２８名）１４至１７岁的被试参加了该实验,实验持续了５周。在第１周所有被试均参加心境、状态焦虑和心率的前测,以确定这些指标的基值水平。在余下的４周时间里,实验组的被试在训练后的下午进行身体整理活之后,进行２５ｍｉｎ的呼吸冥想训练;而控制组的被试则以２５ｍｉｎ的休息取代呼吸冥想。在每周结束时,对两组被试的心镜、焦虎和心率分     

Description of the Movement Characteristics of Two-Year-Old Children Performing the Jump and Reach

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of varied rest intervals, following a 5-min warm-up, upon subsequent ratings of perceived exertion, heart rate (HR), and state anxiety during an exercise period. The subjects were 16 male college students, each with predicted [Vdot]O₂ max of at least 51 ml/kg/min ( = 54.4) as determined by the Åstrand bicycle test. Each subject was tested under four experimental conditions following a 5-min warm-up on a bicycle ergometer at 75% of HR max. Rest intervals of 1 min, 5 min, 10 min, and no rest preceded a progressively increasing 8-min exercise period on a bicycle ergometer. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate, and state anxiety were obtained at 1,000, 1,200, 1,400, and 1,600 KPM during each of the experimental conditions. An analysis of variance, four by four factorial design with repeated measures on both factors, was used to determine if significant differences existed between the experimental conditions for RPE and HR. An analysis of variance, treatment by subjects design, was used to determine if there were significant differences in state anxiety levels among the experimental conditions. Intraclass correlations revealed that reliability for HR and RPE was extremely high. No significant difference was found among the four experimental conditions for perceived exertion, heart rate, and state anxiety. RPE was found to be a good predictor of physiological strain as indicated by HR.     

Consolidation of Pursuit Rotor Learning under Conditions of Induced Arousal

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to test the basic tenets of consolidation theory by studying the relationship between arousal and the performance and learning of a pursuit rotor task. Ninety-six subjects (48 men and 48 women) were randomly assigned to one of three induced arousal conditions (control, failure-feedback, and electrical shock). Subjects were given twenty-one 20-second acquisition trials under induced arousal conditions, followed 24 or 48 hours later by nine trials in the absence of induced arousal (trials 22–30). The Spielberger A-trait test was administered before the 21 acquisition trials and the A-state test was given afterward. The results of the A-trait test revealed that arousal conditions were equal in terms of normal anxiety levels, while results of the A-state test demonstrated that subjects under induced arousal conditions were indeed stressed (had higher levels of state anxiety). The 21 acquisition trials (seven three-trial blocks) were analyzed using time on target (TOT) scores to determine the effects of arousal on performance. The results of this analysis revealed reliable differences for sex and trial blocks, but not for arousal. A significant triple interaction among the three main effects was primarily caused by a decrement in performance by the female subjects who received failure-feedback. TOT recall scores failed to reveal a facilitative effect due to arousal as predicted by perseverative consolidation theory. In summary, the results of the investigation provided partial support for the action decrement notion but none for the action increment notion of consolidation theory.