Relationships among informal learning environments,teaching procedures and scientific reasoning ability

Informal learning experiences have risen to the forefront of science education as being beneficial to students' learning. However, it is not clear in what ways such experiences may be beneficial to students; nor how informal learning experiences may interface with classroom science instruction. This study aims to acquire a better understanding of these issues by investigating one aspect of science learning, scientific reasoning ability, with respect to the students' informal learning experiences and classroom science instruction. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to investigate possible differences in students' scientific reasoning abilities relative to their informal learning environments (impoverished, enriched), classroom teaching experiences (non-inquiry, inquiry) and the interaction of these variables. The results of two-way ANOVAs indicated that informal learning environments and classroom science teaching procedures showed significant main effects on students' scientific reasoning abilities. Students with enriched informal learning environments had significantly higher scientific reasoning abilities compared to those with impoverished informal learning environments. Likewise, students in inquirybased science classrooms showed higher scientific reasoning abilities compared to those in non-inquiry science classrooms. There were no significant interaction effects. These results indicate the need for increased emphases on both informal learning opportunities and inquiry-based instruction in science.     

THE STRUCTURE OF PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES OF BELGIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

A factor analysis was conducted of a test battery designed for use with Belgian secondary school students and based on Thurstone's earlier work on the primary mental abilities. The analysis provided construct validity evidence for the existence of verbal, numerical, spatial, and reasoning abilities in the Belgian sample and thus confirmed the theoretical conceptions guiding the development of the test battery. An examination of the factorial organization of these mental abilities for different age groups revealed a progressive differentiation of abilities with age. There was also evidence that intensive academic specialization improves performance in the abilities required by these specializations.     

EDUCATION,TASK MEANINGFULNESS,AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE IN YOUNG‐OLD AND OLD‐OLD ADULTS

Previous research has indicated that when tasks are made more meaningful, the performance of the elderly generally improves. A closer look, however, reveals that improvement occurs mostly for educationally disadvantaged elderly, highly educated older adults not benefiting differentially from meaningful material. Consequently, the present study compared performance of high‐ and low‐education adults on traditional and meaningful space and reasoning measures. A total of 246 male and female volunteers were divided into subgroups by age (53‐65 and 70‐78 years) and by education (high and low). Separate analyses of variance for reasoning and space revealed main effects for education and age on both abilities. In addition, main effects for test and sex, and a significant age by test interaction were found for space, with the performance differential between the familiar and traditional tests being much greater for the young‐old group. A trend for an education X age X test X sex interaction was found for reasoning, as expected, with low education, young‐old men doing more poorly on the traditional form. Suggestions for future related research are discussed.     

Translation of representations of the structure of matter and its relationship to reasoning,gender, spatial reasoning,and specific prior knowledge

The purpose of this study was to characterize high school chemistry students' ability to make translations between three representations of the structure of matter, and to determine the degree to which the students' ability to make these translations is related to reasoning ability, spatial reasoning ability, gender, and specific knowledge of the representations. Translation between formula, electron configuration, and ball-and-stick model representations of matter were chosen for study because of their promise for adding to knowledge of students' conceptual ecology, and because they may be of practical use for teaching and evaluation in chemistry classrooms. Representations have the characteristic that they embed selected details of the relevant concept or principle, but permit other details to fade. As one example, the chemical formula for water, H₂O, explicitly conveys the identity of the constituent elements and their ratio, but does not explicitly convey the bond angle or whether the bonds are single or double. On the other hand, the ball-and-stick model of water explicitly conveys the bond angle and bond orders, but does not emphasize the ratio of the elements. Translation between representations is an information processing task, requiring understanding of the underlying concept to the extent that the individual can interpret the information provided by the initial representation and infer the details required to construct the target representation. In this study, the use of the translations of representations as an indicator of understanding of chemical concepts is developed in terms of (a) its relationship to four variables associated with achievement in chemistry, (b) specific representation error types, and (c) its utility in revealing details of students' conceptions and concept formation. Translation of representation performance was measured by administering, audio recording, transcribing, and scoring individual, task-based, think-aloud interviews. The associated interview schedule was entitled Translation of Representations—Structure of Matter [TORSOM]. Reasoning ability was measured by the Group Assessment of Logical Thinking—short form (GALT-s), spatial reasoning ability by the spatial reasoning subtest of the Differential Abilities Test (SRDAT), and prior knowledge of the representations by a test developed by the first researcher (Knowledge of Representations—Structure of Matter). When each of the hypothetical correlates were regressed on TORSOM individually, results indicated the KORSOM and GALT-s but not gender or SRDAT were statistically significant (alpha = .05). The two-predictor model accounts for 28% of the variance in the TORSOM scores. Representation error types are described and exemplified.     

Verbal and spatial analogical reasoning in deaf and hearing children: the role of grammar and vocabulary

The extent to which cognitive development and abilities are dependent on language remains controversial. In this study, the analogical reasoning skills of deaf and hard of hearing children are explored. Two groups of children (deaf and hard of hearing children with either cochlear implants or hearing aids and hearing children) completed tests of verbal and spatial analogical reasoning. Their vocabulary and grammar skills were also assessed to provide a measure of language attainment. Results indicated significant differences between the deaf and hard of hearing children (regardless of type of hearing device) and their hearing peers on vocabulary, grammar, and verbal reasoning tests. Regression analyses revealed that in the group of deaf and hard of hearing children, but not in the hearing group, the language measures were significant predictors of verbal analogical reasoning, when age and spatial analogical reasoning ability were controlled for. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

What underlies successful word problem solving? A path analysis in sixth grade students

Two component skills are thought to be necessary for successful word problem solving: (1) the production of visual-schematic representations and (2) the derivation of the correct relations between the solution-relevant elements from the text base. The first component skill is grounded in the visual–spatial domain, and presumed to be influenced by spatial ability, whereas the latter is seated in the linguistic–semantic domain, and presumed to be influenced by reading comprehension. These component skills as well as their underlying basic abilities are examined in 128 sixth grade students through path analysis. The results of the path analysis showed that both component skills and their underlying basic abilities explained 49% of students’ word problem solving performance. Furthermore, spatial ability and reading comprehension both had a direct and an indirect relation (via the component skills) with word problem solving performance. These results contribute to the development of instruction methods that help students using these components while solving word problems.     

Using reasoning ability as the basis for assigning laboratory partners in nonmajors biology

Students in a large one-semester nonmajors college biology course were classified into one of three groups (intuitive—I, transitional—T, reflective—R) based upon a pretest of scientific reasoning ability. Laboratory teams of two students each then were formed, such that all possible combinations of reasoning abilities were represented (i.e., I-I, I-T, I-R, T-T, T-R, R-R). Students worked with their assigned partners during each of the course's 14 laboratory sessions. Gains in reasoning ability, laboratory achievement, and course achievement, as well as changes in students' opinions of their motivation, enjoyment of the laboratory, and their own and their partner's reasoning abilities were assessed at the end of the semester. Significant pre- to posttest gains in reasoning ability by the intuitive and transitional students were found, but these gains were not significantly related to the laboratory partner's reasoning ability. Also, course achievement was not significantly related to the laboratory partner's reasoning ability. Students were perceptive of others' reasoning ability; the more able reasoners were generally viewed as being more motivated, having better ideas, and being better at doing science. Additional results also indicated that course enjoyment and motivation was significantly decreased for the transitional students when they were paired with intuitive students. Apparently, for students in transition (i.e., not at an equilibrium state with regard to reasoning level), it is frustrating to work with a less able reasoner. However, some evidence was found to suggest that reflective students may benefit from working with a less able partner.     

Using Computer Simulations for Promoting Model-based Reasoning

Scientific reasoning is particularly pertinent to science education since it is closely related to the content and methodologies of science and contributes to scientific literacy. Much of the research in science education investigates the appropriate framework and teaching methods and tools needed to promote students’ ability to reason and evaluate in a scientific way. This paper aims (a) to contribute to an extended understanding of the nature and pedagogical importance of model-based reasoning and (b) to exemplify how using computer simulations can support students’ model-based reasoning. We provide first a background for both scientific reasoning and computer simulations, based on the relevant philosophical views and the related educational discussion. This background suggests that the model-based framework provides an epistemologically valid and pedagogically appropriate basis for teaching scientific reasoning and for helping students develop sounder reasoning and decision-taking abilities and explains how using computer simulations can foster these abilities. We then provide some examples illustrating the use of computer simulations to support model-based reasoning and evaluation activities in the classroom. The examples reflect the procedure and criteria for evaluating models in science and demonstrate the educational advantages of their application in classroom reasoning activities.     

Effects of representation sequences and spatial ability on students’ scientific understandings about the mechanism of breathing

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of representation sequences and spatial ability on students’ scientific understandings about the mechanism of breathing in human beings. 130 seventh graders were assigned to two groups with different sequential combinations of static and dynamic representations: SD group (i.e., viewing static representations and then dynamic ones), and DS group (i.e., viewing dynamic representations and then static ones). Among them, 16 students (8 from each group) with different levels of prior knowledge and spatial ability were interviewed. Data sources included a spatial ability test, pre- and post-tests of scientific understandings (involving factual, conceptual, and spatial knowledge), and semi-structured interviews. The statistical results indicated that the SD sequence helped students gain significantly more factual knowledge. The significant interaction effects further suggested that while the representation sequences had no effect on students with low spatial ability, high spatial ability students in the SD group outperformed than their counterparts in DS group on the items of the conceptual and spatial knowledge. Additionally, the analysis of interviews indicated that the representation sequences could affect the foci of students’ explanations and shape their perceptions about the representations. The results suggested interplays among representation sequences, spatial ability, and students’ understandings, and provided insight into the design and arrangement of multiple representations for science learning.     

Visual spatial representation in mathematical problem solving by deaf and hearing students

This research examined the use of visual-spatial representation by deaf and hearing students while solving mathematical problems. The connection between spatial skills and success in mathematics performance has long been established in the literature. This study examined the distinction between visual-spatial "schematic" representations that encode the spatial relations described in a problem versus visual-spatial "pictorial" representations that encode only the visual appearance of the objects described in a problem. A total of 305 hearing (n = 156) and deaf (n = 149) participants from middle school, high school, and college participated in this study. At all educational levels, the hearing students performed significantly better in solving the mathematical problems compared to their deaf peers. Although the deaf baccalaureate students exhibited the highest performance of all the deaf participants, they only performed as well as the hearing middle school students who were the lowest scoring hearing group. Deaf students remained flat in their performance on the mathematical problem-solving task from middle school through the college associate degree level. The analysis of the students' problem representations showed that the hearing participants utilized visual-spatial schematic representation to a greater extent than did the deaf participants. However, the use of visual-spatial schematic representations was a stronger positive predictor of mathematical problem-solving performance for the deaf students. When deaf students' problem representation focused simply on the visual-spatial pictorial or iconic aspects of the mathematical problems, there was a negative predictive relationship with their problem-solving performance. On two measures of visual-spatial abilities, the hearing students in high school and college performed significantly better than their deaf peers.     

Administering Spatial and Cognitive Instruments In-class and On-line: Are These Equivalent?

Standardized, well-established paper-and-pencil tests, which measure spatial abilities or which measure reasoning abilities, have long been found to be predictive of success in the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields. Instructors can use these tests for prediction of success and to inform instruction. A comparative administration of spatial visualization and cognitive reasoning tests, between in-class (proctored paper and pencil) and on-line (unproctored Internet) (N = 457), was used to investigate and to determine whether the differing instrument formats yielded equal measures of spatial ability and reasoning ability in large first-semester general chemistry sections. Although some gender differences were found, findings suggest that some differences across administration formats, but that on-line administration had similar properties of predicting chemistry performance as the in-class version. Therefore, on-line administration is a viable option for instructors to consider especially when dealing with large classes.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING OF THE CONCEPT OF FORCE, REPRESENTATIONAL CONSISTENCY, AND SCIENTIFIC REASONING

This quantitative case study used a pre- and posttest design for exploring the gender differences in secondary school students’ (n?=?131, 45 males and 86 females) learning of the force concept when an interactive engagement type of teaching was used. In addition, students’ ability to interpret multiple representations (i.e., representational consistency) was documented by a pre- and posttest and scientific reasoning ability by a pretest only. Males significantly outperformed females in learning of the force concept, pre- and posttest representational consistency, and pretest scientific reasoning. However, the gender difference in learning of the force concept was not significant when ANCOVA was conducted using pretest results of representational consistency and scientific reasoning as covariates. This appeared to indicate that the gender difference in learning gain was related to students’ abilities before the instruction. Thus, the teaching method used was equally effective for both genders. Further, our quantitative finding about the relation between representational consistency and learning of the force concept supports the assumption that multiple representations are important in science learning.     

Self‐efficacy,reasoning ability,and achievement in college biology

This study compared the relationships of self‐efficacy and reasoning ability to achievement in introductory college biology. Based on the hypothesis that developing formal and postformal reasoning ability is a primary factor influencing self‐efficacy, a significant positive correlation was predicted between reasoning ability and degree of self‐efficacy to complete biological tasks. Further, reasoning ability was predicted to be more highly correlated with course achievement than self‐efficacy. The study involved pre‐ and posttesting 459 introductory biology students. Both self‐efficacy and reasoning ability increased during the semester. As predicted, self‐efficacy and reasoning ability were positively correlated. Depending on the nature of the achievement measure, reasoning ability accounted for some 15 to 30 times more variance in achievement than self‐efficacy. Also, as predicted, reasoning ability was a strong predictor of self‐efficacy, but self‐efficacy was not a strong predictor of reasoning ability. Self‐efficacy estimates and achievement were higher for the concrete tasks than for the formal tasks and higher for the formal tasks than for the postformal tasks. In general, students tended to overestimate their abilities to carry out the concrete, formal, and postformal tasks. Results support the study's working hypothesis that intellectual development continues for some students during the college years, that a postformal level of intellectual development exists, and that reasoning ability is a primary factor influencing both self‐efficacy and achievement. Student overestimation of their abilities may contribute to complacency, lack of effort, and to less than optimal achievement. Consequently, it may be advantageous early in the semester to provide students with particularly challenging tasks that “shock” them out of their complacency and perhaps increase their effort, their reasoning skills, and their achievement. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 706–724, 2007     

Visual‐Spatial Representation,Mathematical Problem Solving,and Students of Varying Abilities

The purpose of this study was to investigate students' use of visual imagery while solving mathematical problems. Students with learning disabilities (LD), average achievers, and gifted students in sixth grade (N= 66) participated in this study. Students were assessed on measures of mathematical problem solving and visual‐spatial representation. Visual‐spatial representations were coded as either primarily schematic representations that encode the spatial relations described in the problem or primarily pictorial representations that encode persons, places, or things described in the problem. Results indicated that gifted students used significantly more visual‐spatial representations than the other two groups. Students with LD used significantly more pictorial representations than their peers. Successful mathematical problem solving was positively correlated with use of schematic representations; conversely, it was negatively correlated with use of pictorial representations.     

Cognitive Abilities among Twelfth‐grade Students: Implications for Science Teaching∗

The study investigated the differences related to formal reasoning abilities among students attending different sections of the upper cycle of secondary schools in Cyprus. The subjects of the study were twelfth‐grade students from 21 intact classes (227 boys and 242 girls). These classes were randomly selected among the 36 twelfth‐grade classes of four schools in a town of Cyprus. The sample of students represented the science section, the economic section and the “unified” section consisting of sections following common curricula in science and mathematics. Students’ performance on a standardized Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) was used as a measure of their cognitive abilities related to control of variables, proportional, probabilistic, correlational and combinatorial reasoning. The students of the “unified” section had lower performance than the students of both the science and the economic section on all cognitive measures, and female students had lower performance than male students on cognitive measures related to control of variables and probabilistic reasoning. Multiple regression analysis between performance on TOLT and gender, section of study, and measures of school achievement showed that gender, section of study, achievement in mathematics, and grade point average, but not achievement in science and Greek language, contributed significantly to predicting performance on TOLT. Observed differences related to measures of school achievement either among the subjects of the three sections or between male and female students did not correspond to differences related to cognitive measures. Factor analysis of performance on the ten TOLT items (two items from each reasoning mode) produced a two‐factor solution. There were also significant differences in students’ performance between items related to the same or different reasoning mode. The results of the study cast doubt on the appropriateness of the existing curricula or their implementation and indicate that different theoretical perspectives should be considered when evaluating cognitive development.     

Assessing the cognitive abilities of culturally and linguistically diverse students: Predictive validity of verbal,quantitative, and nonverbal tests

Verbal and quantitative reasoning tests provide valuable information about cognitive abilities that are important to academic success. Information about these abilities may be particularly valuable to teachers of students who are English‐language learners (ELL), because leveraging reasoning skills to support comprehension is a critical aptitude for their academic success. However, due to concerns about cultural bias, many researchers advise exclusive use of nonverbal tests with ELL students despite a lack of evidence that nonverbal tests provide greater validity for these students. In this study, a test measuring verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal reasoning was administered to a culturally and linguistically diverse sample of students. The two‐year predictive relationship between ability and achievement scores revealed that nonverbal scores had weaker correlations with future achievement than did quantitative and verbal reasoning ability scores for ELL and non‐ELL students. Results do not indicate differential prediction and do not support the exclusive use of nonverbal tests for ELL students. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Students’ academic self-perception

Participation rates in higher education differ persistently between some groups in society. Using two British datasets we investigate whether this gap is rooted in students’ misperception of their own and other's ability, thereby increasing the expected costs to studying. Amongst high school pupils, we find that pupils with a more positive view of their academic abilities are more likely to expect to continue to higher education even after controlling for observable measures of ability and students’ characteristics. University students are also poor at estimating their own test performance and over-estimate their predicted test score. However, females, White and working class students have less inflated view of themselves. Self-perception has limited impact on the expected probability of success and expected returns amongst these university students.     

Spatial abilities of high-school students in the perception of geologic structures

The specific spatial abilities required for the study of basic structural geology were characterized by quantitative and qualitative data analysis. A geologic spatial ability test (GeoSAT) was developed and administered to 115 comprehensive high-school students. Six of these students were interviewed. An analysis of students' incorrect answers revealed two types of answers: (a) nonpenetrative answers, which were based on external exposures of the structure; and (b) penetrative answers, which indicated attempts at representing internal properties of the structure. Students who tended to give penetrative incorrect answers performed significantly higher than students who tended to give nonpenetrative incorrect answers. The reasoning of students for these types of answers, as determined by interviews, supported the initial assumption that these answers were given by students with different levels of ability mentally to penetrate the image of a structure, which was named visual penetration ability (VPA). The interview findings indicated that the VPA is one of two complementary factors needed to solve the problems of GeoSAT; the other factor is the ability to perceive the spatial configuration of the structure. It is concluded that the teaching and learning process should provide students with assistance in both of these areas. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Types of reasoning in 3D geometry thinking and their relation with spatial ability

The aim of this study is to describe and analyse the structure of 3D geometry thinking by identifying different types of reasoning and to examine their relation with spatial ability. To achieve this goal, two tests were administered to students in grades 5 to 9. The results of the study showed that 3D geometry thinking could be described by four distinct types of reasoning which refer to the representation of 3D objects, spatial structuring, conceptualisation of mathematical properties and measurement. The analysis of the study also showed that 3D geometry types of reasoning and spatial abilities should be modelled as different constructs. Finally, it was concluded that students’ spatial abilities, which consist of spatial visualisation, spatial orientation and spatial relations factors, are a strong predictive factor of the four types of reasoning in 3D geometry thinking.     

Reasoning and self-awareness from adolescence to middle age: Organization and development as a function of education

This study involved four age groups: 13–15-, 23–25-, 33–35-, and 43–45-yr-olds. All adult groups involved persons with university education and persons with low education. Participants (1) solved tasks addressed to spatial, propositional, and social reasoning, (2) evaluated their own performance and the difficulty of the tasks, and (3) answered an inventory probing their self-concept for these reasoning domains and for self-awareness and self-regulation. Structural modeling revealed that performance, self-evaluation, and self-representation are systematically interrelated. Performance in spatial and propositional reasoning stabilized in early adulthood, whereas in social reasoning and self-evaluation, performance improved throughout the age span studied. Educated persons performed better and rated themselves accordingly across all domains. The implications of these findings for the general theory of intelligence and cognitive development after adolescence are discussed. The functional shift model is proposed to account for changes in the relative power of different abilities with increasing age.