Sequence matters! Retrieval practice before generative learning is more effective than the reverse order

As follow-up to an initial study phase, both generative learning activities and retrieval practice can substantially enhance learning, but via different functions. Generative activities are theorized to mainly serve the function of constructing coherent mental representations of the learning content that are well integrated with prior knowledge, whereas retrieval practice is theorized to mainly serve the function of consolidating learners’ mental representations in memory. In view of these complementing functions, the present study investigated whether the sequence of these activities matters. In an experiment with N = 158 university students, we varied the sequence of generative learning and retrieval practice after an initial study phase. We found that the retrieval-before-generation sequence yielded better retention and reduced cognitive load during both types of activities. We conclude that although it might seem counterintuitive, engaging learners in retrieval practice before engaging them in generative learning can be more beneficial than vice versa.     

Supporting the self-regulated use of retrieval practice: A higher education classroom experiment

This study investigated whether an instructional intervention can increase students’ self-regulated use of retrieval practice in a higher education classroom environment. A lab-experiment by Ariel and Karpicke (2017) revealed that strategy instructions improved students’ self-regulated use of retrieval practice and subsequent test performance. Our goal was to determine whether these effects generalize to a classroom environment using key concepts from marketing communication. We compared two groups on their self-regulated use of retrieval practice using an online environment. An experimental group (n = 58) received strategy instructions on retrieval practice and a control group (n = 58) received neutral instructions. Instructions were provided during sessions 1 and 2; no instructions were provided in a third, transfer session, measuring self-regulated use of retrieval practice. In sessions 1 and 2, no significant differences between groups were found. In the transfer session, the experimental group tested themselves more (Hypothesis 1) and displayed a larger number of (correct) retrieval attempts per key concept (Hypothesis 2) than the control group. No correlations were found with performance (Hypothesis 3). With our experiment, we took a first step in supporting students in their self-regulated use of retrieval practice in a classroom environment with complex materials.     

Enhancing learning by retrieval: Enriching free recall with elaborative prompting

It is well-established in memory research that retrieval fosters learning. When applying this effect in education, it is an important question which type of retrieval task works best. Several studies have shown that learning is enhanced by linking new information with prior knowledge. A potential approach to making retrieval more effective, therefore, is to enrich retrieval instructions with the requirement to elaborate on the learning contents and link them to what is already known. In this study, we compared a free recall condition, as used in many studies on learning by retrieval, with a prompted recall condition in which learners were required to recall the information and apply it to their lives. Fifty-six undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of these two conditions. They learned from a video-recorded lecture. One week later, learning outcomes were assessed by a posttest measuring fact recall and comprehension of the contents from the video lecture. Learners in the prompted recall group, compared to the free recall group, used more elaborative strategies in response to the recall task and achieved better comprehension scores. The effect on comprehension was mediated by the use of elaborative strategies. This pattern of results supports the constructive retrieval hypothesis, stating that retrieval is most effective when it involves constructive elaboration of the contents being learned. Our findings also encourage the use of pedagogical tasks in classroom teaching that combine elaboration and retrieval.     

Learner-friendly textbooks: Chemistry texts based on a constructivist view of learning

In this study, the use of inquiry methods, learning cycles, a conceptual change model and analogy in creating alternative science texts was discussed. An alternative text on the topic of acids and bases was created by integrating the methods and models discussed in this paper. The alternative text and a sample of a traditional text taken from a textbook, which is still used in Turkish high schools, were given to two groups, totaling 42 pre-service teachers—the alternative text was given to an experimental group and the traditional text to a control group—in an experimental setting and their understandings of acids and bases were compared. In addition, in the second step of the study, the pre-service teachers read both texts and indicated their preferences in terms of interest, understandability and helpfullness.     

The learning potential of online student-constructed tests with citing peer-generated questions

In view of contribution-based pedagogy and observational learning theory, students’ perceived uses, preferences, usage, and selection considerations with regard to citing peers’ work were examined in an online learning environment targeting student-constructed tests. Data were collected from 84 fifth-grade students who participated in online student-constructed tests with and without citing in an 11-week study. Quantitative and qualitative data in response to an end-of-session questionnaire and actual online citing behaviour were analyzed. Several major findings were obtained. First, significantly more participants supported and preferred “citing” over “no citing” for online student-constructed tests. Second, data with regard to perceived uses, preferences, and reported usage all supported the potential of citing for providing an observational learning space. Third, citing allowed the participants to attend to areas pinpointed by their peers but initially ignored by them, thus making social construction of knowledge possible. Fourth, the quality and the author of the item are the two determining factors affecting citing decisions. Fifth, a statistically significant positive correlation between students’ academic achievement and their generated questions cited by peers was confirmed. Finally, actual online citing behaviour varied greatly among participants, with the majority using the citing function during online test-construction to various extents.     

Questioning to learn and learning to question: Structure and function of problem-based learning scenarios in environmental science education

In problem-based learning, scenarios relating to real life areused as a point of departure for the learning process. Eventhough the importance of suitable cases or scenarios in bringingabout a fruitful learning process is emphasised in theliterature, few studies focus on how they actually function inthe learning process. This study focuses on how the scenariosused in a ten-week introductory course of a new four-yearundergraduate programme in environmental science functioned interms of the structure and content of the questions they evoked.Data were gathered through diary notes from nine groups ofstudents, comprising 5–8 students per group. The data weresubjected to a qualitative analysis aimed at describing thestructure and content of the questions generated by the groups.Five different kinds of questions were identified and labelled;encyclopaedic, meaning-oriented, relational,value-oriented and solution-oriented. All scenarios generated questions pertaining to all five categories in all groups, butthe emphasis varied. The results are discussed in relation to thedesign of scenarios, and in relation to students' approaches tolearning.     

The incorporation of hands-on tasks in an online course: an analysis of a blended learning environment

This article describes the design and evaluation of a blended online/face-to-face course completed by more than 6000 learners throughout the United States of America and internationally. The educational impact was monitored using a variety of evaluation strategies. The results, in terms of achieved knowledge and overall satisfaction, indicate that a focus on online instruction combined with face-to-face, hands-on activities showed statistically significant improvement in the learners' understanding of the course material, while also validating the impact of the curriculum in their workplace. As illustrated through the blended course design, this study further showed that online learners with greater improvement in their pre- and posttest scores also exhibited significantly greater likelihood in demonstrating competency in several areas during the hands-on portion of the course. In particular, participants working in the information systems field exhibited the highest mean difference score (21.49) on the pre- and the posttests, while those working in the laboratory had the lowest (12.17). Likewise, the odds that participants who reviewed the course contents sought to further understand their job roles was 58.2 times greater for those in information systems, while it was only 19.0 times greater for laboratory staff, than those who did not review their job roles.     

Using action learning sets to support students managing transition into the clinical learning environment in a UK medical school

This paper reports on a Curriculum Innovation Project to empower third-year Undergraduate Medical students to recognise learning opportunities in their clinical placements and to proactively use them to develop their understanding and practice. The project created action learning sets (ALS) in response to the challenges students face when trying to engage in work-based learning. In particular, how changes to clinical working patterns affect student learning, principally their participation within clinical teams. Learning sets were conducted in 2 teaching hospitals, involving 20- year, 3 medical students over a 10-week period. The students met for one and a half to two hours each week and between meetings engaged in agreed activities and reflections. The project was independently evaluated using student interviews triangulated with facilitators’ systematic reflections on the sessions and student written reflections. ALS were found to provide a valuable and atypical approach to support students through the transition from Academic to Clinical learning settings and lay the foundations for a lifelong learning practice. This included supporting students to ask effective questions, develop participation in practice, present and identify themselves as emergent professionals, reflect upon and manage critical incidents and engage in both self-directed and collaborative learning.     

How to integrate cooperative skills training into learning tasks: an illustration with young pupils' writing

This study explored how to integrate cooperative skills training into learning tasks in the area of writing. Cooperative learning sessions, aimed at developing both cooperative and cognitive skills, were created and conducted in two elementary school classes (Grade 2, age 7–8). Pupils’ teamwork interactions were videotaped and analysed. Results show that young pupils were able to work cooperatively on writing tasks (WT) without teacher's help, advocating realisable teaching practices. Interactive dynamics likely to enhance pupils’ involvement in constructive interactions and in WT are documented; this typology could be used as a heuristic tool in future qualitative research.     

The dynamics of online learning at the workplace: Peer-facilitated social learning and the application in practice

Research stresses the importance of social components in learning. The social contact with peers and tutors stimulates reflection and supports higher processes of learning necessary for the internalisation and application of new knowledge. However, merely proposing opportunities for interaction does not necessarily lead to fruitful discussion and collaboration. Social presence and facilitation are key concepts for successful mutual learning. Both are represented in Murphy’s collaboration model; social presence forms the basis of collaboration on which discussions and co-construction of knowledge evolve. Facilitation supports the entire collaboration process. In this paper, an adjusted version of Murphy’s model was applied to analyse 1085 comments shared in an online course between career practitioners of a public employment service. The results show that without a dedicated tutor, learners can still be involved in collaborative learning and co-construction of new knowledge provided that the topic under discussion is highly relevant and controversial. Learners themselves take over social presence and facilitation activities, but less frequently than when a professional tutor facilitates discussions. Ex post summative evaluation revealed that only a few learners applied the gained knowledge in the long-term. As comparisons with related research suggest, higher facilitation support leading to a higher cognitive interaction with the learning could have better supported the transfer to practice.     

The differential impact of observational learning and practice-based learning on the development of oral presentation skills in higher education

The present study focuses on the design and evaluation of an innovative instructional approach to developing oral presentation skills. The intervention builds on the observational learning theoretical perspective. This perspective is contrasted with the traditional training and practice approach. Two sequencing approaches – learners starting with observational learning versus learners starting with practice opportunities only – were compared. It was hypothesised that learners starting with observational learning would outperform learners in the practice only condition. The results suggest a significant differential impact on development of oral presentation skills. This impact of the observational learning training approach is only found in a limited number of evaluation criteria. Results additionally suggest that students are highly motivated to learn this type of skill. Interaction effects between student characteristics and instructional interventions were not significant.     

The effect of incorporating cooperative learning principles in pair programming for student teachers

Based on their quantitative and qualitative investigations, the authors conclude that pair programming as a strategy for teaching student teachers could be made more effective through the incorporation of principles associated with cooperative learning. They substantiate this claim by referring to a literature study about the advantages and disadvantages of pair programming as a teaching-learning strategy, by then discussing five principles of cooperative learning, and by presenting the findings of their empirical study. Second year student teachers taking a Delphi programming module participated in an experiment conducted over a two year period. In 2005, the participants did computer programming in pairs without the application of principles associated with cooperative learning. In 2006, a similar group of participants also programmed in pairs, but in their case, certain principles associated with cooperative learning were incorporated in the strategy followed by the facilitator. According to a comparison of the module examination marks, the 2006 group outperformed the 2005 group. This finding was confirmed by qualitative investigations.     

Promoting self-sustained learning in higher education: the ISEE framework

To equip graduates with the capability to meet complex demands of work and life, it is important that higher education teachers engage students in self-sustained learning – the persistent, self-initiated pursuit of expertise development in one's subject area. This requires building a positive synergy between learning and teaching, which implies various potential difficulties for teachers. Based on a critical analysis of these difficulties, it is proposed that self-sustained learning can be nurtured when teachers activate a form of dialogic reflective practice that prioritizes students’ subject expertise development. Relevant strategies are suggested and potential difficulties in implementing them are examined. These strategies are synthesized as the ISEE framework: (1) employing Inquiry-based Scaffolding Tasks to motivate students’ learning interests and scaffold their progress; (2) encouraging Engaging Classroom Dialogs to help students’ development of subject expertise and an active learner identity; and (3) using Engaged Critical Reflections to build close and trusting teacher–student relationships.     

"江表儒宗":会稽贺氏之家风与家学

六朝世族门第之长盛不衰 ,与其家风、家学有关。会稽贺氏兴自汉代 ,历经六朝绵延至隋唐 ,数百年间代有才人 ,成为江东著姓 .贺氏门风尚忠义、倡孝友 ;在学术上则世传礼学     

研究性学习在语文教学中的实践意义

《语文课程标准》首次提出了“探究性学习”的要求,提出要考查学生“探究内容”的能力。“探究性学习”表现学生对阅读材料、学习材料、学习问题等进行探索研究,从而培养出学生的语文能力和创造精神。语文阅读教学是一种研究性学习活动,也是一种有效的学习方法。作者从语文学科的性质特点,从自身的教学实际出发,在阅读教学中分别从“质疑问难”的探究式阅读和勤于表达的“写读”等方面进行了有益的尝试。     

研究性学习在语文教学中的实践意义

<语文课程标准>首次提出了"探究性学习"的要求,提出要考查学生"探究内容"的能力."探究性学习"表现学生对阅读材料、学习材料、学习问题等进行探索研究,从而培养出学生的语文能力和创造精神.语文阅读教学是一种研究性学习活动,也是一种有效的学习方法.作者从语文学科的性质特点,从自身的教学实际出发,在阅读教学中分别从"质疑问难"的探究式阅读和勤于表达的"写读"等方面进行了有益的尝试.     

Student-centred learning: the role and responsibility of the lecturer

A student-centred approach to learning encourages students to have more responsibility for their learning and is a process that relies heavily on professional confidence to ‘let-go’ of traditional teaching responsibilities. This paper describes the introduction of a student-centred approach within one further education college in Ireland, explores the facilitation role of the lecturer and identifies strategies that have enabled effective transition from traditional pedagogical practice. The research incorporated semi-structured interviews with five lecturers who adopted student-centred learning in their teaching, focus group sessions with 36 students who engaged in a student-centred module and two classroom observations. The research identified some common understanding of a student-centred approach, although the emphasis differed slightly between lecturers and students, highlighting some implications for on-going practice.