Sex preference and body orientation preference in huddling behavior of rat pups

The social huddling of six litters of rat pups (Rattus norvegicus) was observed on Days 6–9 postpartum without the dam present. Each litter was reduced to three male and three female pups. Thirty-six pups were used as subjects (18 male, 18 female). Tests for the effects of sex of subject, age of subject, sex of littermate huddled against, and body orientation during huddling were carried out. Results indicated that subjects huddled against opposite-sex Uttermates more frequently than against same-sex littermates. Huddling was a curvilinear function of age, with average frequency of huddling reaching a peak on the second day of observation (Day 7 postpartum) and decreasing thereafter. Results also showed that subjects, regardless of sex, huddled using an orientation that allowed their heads to touch more frequently than an orientation in which the head was touching the body of a sibling. These data on early sex preference and body orientation pReferences during huddling suggest that rat pups are competent in aspects of behavior having attachment potential. The findings also help define the age of social competence in this species.     

A social-constructivist approach in physical education: Influence of dyadic interactions on tactical choices in an instructional team sport setting

The purpose of this study was to analyze the role of dyadic verbal peer interactions in a team sport such as handball. Participants, 20 boys and 20 girls aged between 11 and 12, were assigned to two learning condition groups. The task was an instructional setting in team handball (2 attackers against 1 defender in each half court). The experimental group with verbal exchanges was expected to obtain higher performances in the post-tests than those who had not interacted verbally between playing sequences. The secondary objective was to investigate whether dyadic gender had an effect on tactical choice and cognitive skills in playing games. The experiment demonstrated the superiority of the dyadic verbal interaction group over the non-interactive group as regards tactical choices and action projects. It also showed gender differences since males performed better females with regard to action efficiency. The results are discussed within the theoretical framework of the social psychology of acquisition and development and within that of teaching for understanding. In conclusion, the socio-constructivist approach would seem to be pertinent in team sport decision-making tasks.     

Intergroup attitudes of European American children attending ethnically homogeneous schools

Intergroup attitudes were assessed in European American 1st-grade (M=6.99 years, SD=0.32) and 4th-grade (M=10.01 years, SD=0.36) children (N=138) attending ethnically homogeneous schools to test hypotheses about racial biases and interracial friendships. An Ambiguous Situations Task and an Intergroup Contact Assessment were administered to all participants. Unlike previous findings with European American children attending heterogeneous schools, children rated minority perpetrators more negatively than majority perpetrators, and friendship as less likely when a minority than a majority perpetrator was portrayed. These findings suggest that intergroup contact contributes to racial bias in children's interpretations of peer dyadic encounters and to judgments about interracial friendships.     

Biases in quality attribution to mother-child and caregiver-child interaction

Participants (N = 141) rated videotaped dyadic adult-child interactions on dimensions of quality. Participants who were informed that they were viewing mother-child dyads rated the quality of interactions differently than participants who believed they were watching unrelated care provider-child dyads. “Mothers” were judged more harshly than “providers” in the bad and mixed quality segments but not in the good quality segments. Questionnaires completed by the participants revealed that participants' sex and own child care experiences influenced attitudes toward child care and maternal employment but did not influence quality ratings. Potential explanations for the biases in quality attribution to maternal and non-maternal care providers and the possible invalidity of attitude questionnaires in the detection of these biases are discussed.     

Cross-sex friendship in children: Gender patterns and cultural perspectives

An understanding of cross-sex friendship patterns can highlight male-female interactions in ways not revealed through investigations of same-sex friendships. Therefore, children's cross-sex friendship choices in two cultures were studied to explore culture- and gender-related biases in the socialization of sex roles. Fifth graders in America and Sweden responded to two sociometric questions about help with schoolwork and secret-sharing. Differences across gender and culture lines provided support for the existence of biases in gender-role training that may differ among cultures. Questions were raised regarding the role of social agents in the development of social cognitions, the amenability to change of traditional sex-typed behaviors, and the differences among cultures that might influence social-cognitive development. The fact that some children make cross-sex choices suggests that socialization practices do not influence all children uniformly. These differences bear further study.     

The joint influence of mother and father parenting on child cognitive outcomes at age 5

Few studies of parenting have considered the possibility that the association between one parent's supportive parenting and a child's early cognition is moderated by the other parent's supportiveness. We test this proposition using a low-income sample of coresident couples. In addition, we cross-classify parents within couples according to their parenting behaviors to test for homogamy. Mothers and fathers were videotaped during separate free-play dyadic interactions with their 2-year-old child, and each parent's behavior was coded according to six scales. K-means cluster analysis was used to describe each parent's pattern of parenting behaviors. Parents were then cross-classified within couples by pattern. There was mixed evidence of homogamous parenting styles within couples. After parents were consolidated into four primary pairings, children in each of these pairings were compared on age 5 math and language scores. Children with two supportive parents scored highest, while those with two unsupportive parents scored lowest. Among children with one supportive parent, the sex of that parent was inconsequential. There were no significant interactions between maternal and paternal supportiveness on either math or language. Thus, it appears that in this low-income sample the combined effects of maternal and paternal supportiveness are additive.     

Food sharing in albino rat pups: Does familiarity breed contempt?

The present experiment investigated the effects of kinship and familiarity upon food sharing in pairs of albino rat pups. Five pairs of rats from each of the following groups were tested: (1) familiar siblings, (2) nonfamiliar siblings, (3) familiar nonsiblings, and (4) nonfamiliar non-siblings. A small food portion was used, necessitating not only close physical contact, but also cooperation in the sense that both pups were required to remain relatively immobile in order for both to feed simultaneously. Results indicated more frequent sharing among unfamiliar pups, whether related or not. Results also indicated that food sharing increased in frequency among all four groups over the 5-day testing period, suggesting that cooperation in the form of food sharing can develop, or increase in frequency, over time in albino rat pups.     

Greater Preference among Females Than Males for Dyadic Interaction in Early Childhood

The present study was designed to examine sex differences in children's preferences for dyadic and group interaction in early childhood. In Study 1, a professional puppeteer interacted with 21 females and 20 males 4 and 5 years of age using 1 (dyad) and 3 (group) puppets in a within-subjects design. Enjoyment of the 2 conditions was assessed through frequency of smiling and eye contact. In addition, sociometric techniques were used to measure the size of children's play networks, and observations of naturally occurring dyadic and group interaction were conducted. Study 2 was a replication of the puppet play procedure used in Study 1 with 38 females and 37 males 3 and 4 years of age. In both studies, females were found to enjoy dyadic interaction more than males. In addition, some evidence suggests that males may enjoy group interaction more than females. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical explanations for sex differences in preferences for interaction with differing numbers of peers.     

An examination of teacher–student interactions in inclusive classrooms: teacher interviews and classroom observations

Teacher–student interactions in 17 inclusive classrooms were examined using a mixed‐methods approach that involved quantitative analysis of interactions recorded during classroom observations and follow‐up interviews with seven general educators. Observational findings suggest that classrooms were organised along traditional lines with the vast majority of interactions provided by general educators to the whole class, followed by brief intervals of 1 : 1 interactions directed towards individual students, most frequently children with disabilities. Interview findings suggest that teachers were aware of the greater individual attention devoted to students with disabilities and described a number of ways that they adapt their instruction that are consistent with the research on effective teaching. In addition, participants struggled with the dilemma of balancing their attention between students whom they perceived as needing it most and ensuring that the class as a whole made adequate progress. The analysis of both observational and interview data indicates that paraprofessionals were responsible for a large portion of instruction and curricular decision making for children with severe disabilities in these classrooms.     

The experience of story reading: deaf children and hearing mothers' interactions at story time

THE STUDY EXAMINED scaffolding interactions between deaf children and hearing mothers in which story reading was used as a tool to aid in the development of narrative comprehension and linguistic reasoning. The dyadic interactions were examined from the perspective of the theoretical works of Vygotsky (1934/1962, 1978, 1929/1981, 1960/1981). The sample group consisted of 7 dyads of hearing mothers and their deaf children ages 4.2 to 9.5 years. The mothers signed a story to their children. The dyadic interactions reflected the different levels of scaffolding and functioning within the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1934/1962, 1978). The researchers found that story reading provides an excellent framework for both cognitive and emotional growth within the parent/child dyad. Mothers who engaged their children in mutual dialogue also used elaboration. This was reflected in their children's linguistic reasoning.     

The Family Context of Gender Intensification in Early Adolescence

This longitudinal study of 144 young adolescents (ages 9–11 at phase 1) examined the hypothesis that boys and girls would experience increased "gender-differential socialization" across a 1-year period in early adolescence, and that such patterns would be stronger in families in which ( a ) parents maintained a traditional division of labor, and ( b ) there was a younger sibling of the opposite gender. Longitudinal analyses of 3 aspects of family socialization (adolescents' participation in "feminine" and "masculine" household chores; adolescents' involvement in dyadic activities with mothers and fathers; parental monitoring) revealed that gender intensification was apparent for some aspects of family socialization but not others. In addition, when gender intensification was apparent, it generally emerged in some family contexts but not in others. Only dyadic parent-adolescent involvement was characterized by an overall pattern of gender intensification in which girls became increasingly involved with their mothers and boys with their fathers; this pattern was exacerbated in contexts where adolescents had a younger, opposite-sex sibling.     

Behavioral, Affective, and Social Correlates of Involvement in Cross-Sex Friendship in Elementary School

The purpose of this study was to compare children with and without cross-sex friends on measures of social and cognitive competence, endorsement of sex-role stereotypes, and family composition. Subjects were 723 third and fourth graders (377 girls, 346 boys) from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds; 35% were African American. Measures included sociometric assessments of peer acceptance, friendship, and behavioral reputation, as well as self-reports of perceived self-competence and endorsement of sex-role stereotypes. In addition, teachers completed ratings of children's social and cognitive competence. In all, 92 children, about 14% of the sample, had one or more reciprocal opposite-sex friends; for 21 of these children, their cross-sex friendships were their primary or only friendships. African American children were more likely than European American children to have opposite-sex friends. Involvement in cross-sex friendships was unrelated to the gender make-up of the classroom, but was related to family structure. Comparisons of the children who had primarily or only cross-sex friends to matched groups of children who had only same-sex friends and to children who had cross-sex friends secondarily to same-sex ones revealed a number of differences between the groups in social competence and relationships with peers. Overall, children with primarily opposite-sex friends had poorer social skills than other children with friends, although they were less stereotyped about sex roles than other children, and were better adjusted than children with no friends on most measures. In contrast, children involved in opposite-sex friendship secondarily to same-sex friendship were as well adjusted socially as children with only same-sex friendships. These results suggest that children with cross-sex friends differ among themselves, depending on the primacy of the cross-sex relationship.     

Conflict within dyadic interactions as a stimulant for conceptual change in physics

Research suggests that conventional teaching techniques have proved largely ineffective for dealing with the problem of science students’ misconceptions or alternative frameworks. This paper reports an investigation whereby inter‐personal conflict within dyadic interactions is used as a strategy for promoting development towards correct scientific conceptions in specific areas of electrical circuits and mechanics amongst first‐year tertiary physics students. The data indicate that a large number of physics students at the tertiary level hold non‐scientific conceptions of these physical phenomena. The dyadic interaction strategy proved effective as a means of encouraging students to actively and closely consider their own thinking about basic physical concepts. Further, results highlight the importance of inter‐personal conflict in the process of conceptual change.     

Older opposite-sex romantic partners,sexual risk,and victimization in adolescence

This study examined how age gaps among opposite-sex romantic partners related to sexual risk-taking and victimization by partners among 201 at-risk adolescents (60.2% female). We examined three questions: (a) is younger partner age, age gap between partners, or a combination of these two factors most strongly related to negative outcomes; (b) do age gaps relate to negative outcomes differently for male versus female adolescents; and (c) why do age gaps relate to negative outcomes? Results revealed that the wider the age gap between partners, the more likely adolescents were to engage in sex and the less likely they were to use protection against pregnancy and STIs. Wider age gaps were also associated with more frequent emotional and physical victimization and higher odds of unwanted sexual behavior. Findings did not differ significantly by gender or younger partner age. Analyses revealed that the wider the age gap, the more likely both partners were to engage in risky lifestyles (i.e., substance use and delinquency), and risky lifestyles – rather than poor negotiation or decision-making equality – helped to explain associations between age gaps and engagement in sexual intercourse and victimization experiences. Results suggest that relationships with age gaps tend to involve two partners who are engaging in deviant lifestyles overall, further corroborating the need to identify and provide services to these youth. Results also support movements toward considering partner age gaps rather than relying on a set age of consent when determining adolescents’ legal competency to consent to sex.     

Same- and cross-sex friends: Implications for interaction and social skills

Sex cleavages in toddler peer groups were investigated in two studies. In the first study, playmate preferences and initiations and responses to friends were examined. Three types of initiations and their responses were examined during the free play of 46 toddlers in day care centers. A preference for same-sex playmates was strongest in the oldest girls. Boys tended to ignore or refuse girls' initiations when the initiations took the form of specific requests to play a game compared with a more general approach. Friendships tended to be made with members of the same sex. However, children having same- and opposite-sex friends were less likely to initiate and respond to friends on the basis of sex. Children with fewer same-sex preferences initiated more games.In the second study, cross-sex friendships in 329 early toddlers, late toddlers, and preschool children were examined. Some children in all age groups had cross-sex friends, but the number decreased with age. Children with cross-sex friends appeared more socially skilled than children without cross-sex friends.     

Sex differences in object location memory: Some further methodological considerations

Previously it has been reported that female performance on the recall of objects and their locations in a spatial array is superior to that of males. This may reflect underlying information-processing biases whereby males organize information in a self-referential manner while females adopt a more comprehensive approach. The known female advantage in verbal memory may, however, account for this sex difference. In an initial experiment we found no overall sex differences in object or object-location memory. The inclusion of a verbal distracter task revealed gender-congruent biases in performance. A final study examined some methodological issues associated with the design of item arrays. After controlling for differences in item distinctiveness, performance on object-location was found to be substantially influenced by the distance that items were displaced in the array. These findings demonstrate that certain methodological factors can significantly affect the attentional and mnemonic processes that operate when performing tasks of this nature and can negate underlying sex differences in performance.     

Dyadic discussion as a teaching method

The disadvantages of the conventional small group teaching method are discussed and two procedures designed to overcome these are outlined. Both procedures are variants on the single theme of dyadic interaction in which the two participants ask questions of each other. The writer's own experience with dyadic interaction as a teaching approach is outlined and a modification to the basic format is suggested. Use of the technique as a means of “breaking the ice” with a new group is also discussed.     

Influence of postpartum shock controllability on subsequent maternal behavior in rats

Responses of mother rats were observed 24 h before and 24 and 72 h after exposure to one of three 8-day postpartum treatments: shock escape training, yoked inescapable shock, or restrained with no shock. In contrast to those in the other two groups, the dams given inescapable shock showed slower speed to approach the nest, shorter durations of being on the nest, and lower frequency and shorter total duration of oral contact with their pups. These dams also retrieved their pups less frequently, but this measure, as well as the frequency of leaving the nest, did not result in significant differences between groups. Since the traditional interpretations of the learned-helplessness effect were not entirely able to account for these findings, the observed uncontrollable-stress-produced changes in maternal behavior were examined from an ethological perspective.     

Simultaneous discrimination learning: Stimulus interactions

Although considerable attention has been given to interactions between events serving as the positive (S+) and negative (S−) stimuli in successive discriminations, there has been little study of similar interactions in simultaneous discriminations. We propose that in a simultaneous discrimination, given what is typically relatively little experience with the consequences of responding to the S−, some of the value of the S+ transfers to the S− with which it was paired. Furthermore, the mechanisms responsible for this transfer of value appear to be the higher order Pavlovian association between the S− and the S+, as well as within-event associations between them. Although in typical simultaneous discriminations, negative value does not appear to transfer from the S− to the S+, when adequate experience is provided with the S−, contrast typically develops, reducing the value of the S− (negative contrast) and enhancing the value of the S+ (positive contrast). This model of stimulus interactions has implications not only for simple simultaneous discrimination learning, but also for research using combinations of discriminations (e.g., transitive inference in animals and humans). This model may also have implications for a number of human social psychological phenomena.     

Relationships between macro and micro socio-cultural contexts: implications for the study of interactions in the mathematics classroom

In this paper I attempt to clarify how the relationship between macro and micro social contexts has been addressed in the Vygotskian and Neo-Piagetian approaches to learning. For each approach I look at how key scholars (Cole, 1977; Perret-Clermont, Perret and Bell, 1991) come to view context as central to their theories of cognitive development. In order to illustrate my review of the dominant strands of empirical research I refer to studies that focus on the uses, learning and understanding of mathematics. I start the paper with the socio-cultural Vygotskian approach. This is closely associated with my own research into the relationship between culture and learning. Not surprisingly, I find biases in this body of research in terms of the macro and micro features of contexts which were analysed. In an attempt to gain insights into alternative ways of conceptualising these relationships I explore work which has adopted a socio-psychological approach. In the final part of the paper I discuss how these insights can be used to broaden our basis for studying interactions in the mathematics classroom and conclude by relating my ideas to new developments in socio-cultural theory.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.