Exploring the impact of written reflections on learning in the elementary mathematics classroom

The authors examined the implementation of written reflections in a Grade 4 mathematics classroom over the course of 8 weeks. Students in this case study engaged in a workshop modeled after Calkin's Writers' Workshop and within this workshop the use of writing as a reflective tool in mathematics was introduced. The authors explore how students used writing to evaluate their learning and how the teacher used the students' written reflections as a formative assessment for instructional purposes. Students' written reflections were coded and these codes were used to conduct an inductive thematic analysis. Analysis of written reflections via constant-comparison analysis was used for further differentiation. The findings show students' ability to accurately self-evaluate their problem-solving skills and highlighted students' confidence level with certain mathematical concepts. Teachers were able to use students' reflections as a place to begin conferring with a student for further clarification. The written reflections aided in instructional decisions and increased individual instruction when needed. The authors include implications for teacher practice and areas for future research.     

Teacher educators' reflections on moments in a secondary teacher education course: thinking forward by challenging our teaching practices

In this paper the authors explore two pedagogical moments that occurred within a diversity‐focused secondary teacher education course, giving specific attention to Genevieve's and Debra's reflections as course instructors. We explore the ways in which instructors find themselves challenged, engaged and provoked to rethink taken for granted ideas and beliefs about their pedagogies as teacher educators. We conclude the paper by ‘thinking forward’: challenging teacher educators to be responsible and to be vulnerable with respect to their own teaching stances and to take the time to critically examine their own lived experiences in order to connect with their students' emergent understandings.     

Development of professional knowledge in learning to teach elementary science

The purpose of this research was to understand how preservice elementary teacher experiences within the context of reflective science teacher education influence the development of professional knowledge. We conducted a case analysis to investigate one preservice teacher's beliefs about science teaching and learning, identify the tensions with which she grappled in learning to teach elementary science, understand the frames from which she identified problems of practice, and discern how her experiences played a role in framing and reframing problems of practice. The teacher, Barbara, encountered tensions in thinking about science teaching and learning as a result of inconsistencies between her vision of science teaching and her practice. Confronting these tensions between ideals and realities prompted Barbara to rethink the connections between her classroom actions and students' learning and create new perspectives for viewing her practice. Through reframing, she was able to consider and begin implementing alternative practices more resonant with her beliefs. Barbara's case illustrates the value of understanding prospective teachers' beliefs, their experiences, and the relationship between beliefs and classroom actions. Furthermore, the findings underscore the significance of offering reflective experience as professionals early in the careers of prospective teachers. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 36: 121–139, 1999     

Assessment for learning in constrained contexts: How does the teacher’s self-directed development play out?

This qualitative case study explores how a teacher directed himself in implementing assessment for learning (AfL) among his students in a constrained context (i.e., a lack of institutional support in offering effective teacher education programs). The data included a Chinese college English writing teacher’s reflections over two courses, interviews, and dialogues with the students, coupled with field notes. The qualitative analysis shows that in a constrained context, self-directed AfL was buttressed by the teacher's existent pedagogical knowledge. In the process, the teacher’s self-agency empowered him in synergizing existent knowledge with external resources and revamping his teaching based on the students’ needs as reflected through AfL. These student-centered practices contributed to reduced complexity of AfL implementation, and yielded a more or less beginning cycle: the students echoed the teacher’s purpose of assessment, which considered knowledge appropriation as pivotal, and the teacher felt professionally rewarded from self-directed development using assessment-based information to improve his instruction and benefit his students.     

Teachers' framing of argumentation goals: Working together to develop individual versus communal understanding

For students to meaningfully engage in science practices, substantive changes need to occur to deeply entrenched instructional approaches, particularly those related to classroom discourse. Because teachers are critical in establishing how students are permitted to interact in the classroom, it is imperative to examine their role in fostering learning environments in which students carry out science practices. This study explores how teachers describe, or frame, expectations for classroom discussions pertaining to the science practice of argumentation. Specifically, we use the theoretical lens of a participation framework to examine how teachers emphasize particular actions and goals for their students' argumentation. Multiple-case study methodology was used to explore the relationship between two middle school teachers' framing for argumentation, and their students' engagement in an argumentation discussion. Findings revealed that, through talk moves and physical actions, both teachers emphasized the importance of students driving the argumentation and interacting with peers, resulting in students engaging in various types of dialogic interactions. However, variation in the two teachers' language highlighted different purposes for students to do so. One teacher explained that through these interactions, students could learn from peers, which could result in each individual student revising their original argument. The other teacher articulated that by working with peers and sharing ideas, classroom members would develop a communal understanding. These distinct goals aligned with different patterns in students' argumentation discussion, particularly in relation to students building on each other's ideas, which occurred more frequently in the classroom focused on communal understanding. The findings suggest the need to continue supporting teachers in developing and using rich instructional strategies to help students with dialogic interactions related to argumentation. This work also sheds light on the importance of how teachers frame the goals for student engagement in this science practice.     

Knowing and teaching science: the constructivist paradox

This paper addresses the parallel between the changes in students' and teachers' learning advocated by constructivist science educators. It begins with a summary of the epistemology of constructivism and uses a vignette drawn from a set of case studies to explore the impact of a constructivist science in‐service programme on an experienced and formal elementary science teacher. Judged by constructivist standards, the teacher described in the vignette makes very little progress. The irony of applying a constructivist critique to his work, however, is that it fails to treat the teachers' imperfect knowledge of teaching with the same respect as constructivists treat students' imperfect learning of science. The remainder of the paper explores this constructivist paradox, and suggests that‐like students' knowledge of science‐teachers' knowledge of constructivist science teaching is likely to grow through slow and gradual re‐formation of their established understanding of classroom theory and practice.     

Student Journals and Student-constructed Questions in a Primary Mathematics Classroom

Eleven Grade 6 students from a class of 26 Canadian children (comprising both Grade 5 and Grade 6 students) were the focus of a 15-week study on students' mathematical learning through writing, where Student Journals (SJ) and Student-Constructed Questions (SCQ) were used by the class teacher as an integral part of her lessons on common and decimal fractions. Student interviews, classroom observations and a teacher interview complemented the analysis of SJ and SCQ. Both writing tasks evidenced students' mathematical learning, but while the SCQ indicated students' fraction knowledge more clearly, the SJ did not communicate students' understanding of fractions as well as student's verbal discussion and explanations did.     

Decentering the teacher: a practitioner's acccount

This article is an account of an action research project conducted in a first grade classroom. The practitioner-researcher describes a process of “decentering.” Realizing that centering learners necessarily means decentering the practitioner, the author collaborates with his first grade class to identify and clarify the problems associated with teacher centeredness. This article describes the groups' development and implementation of strategies and includes reflections upon understandings and project-derived assertions. The account presents students' perspectives and interpretations and the practitioner's emergent theories as they evolved throughout this collaborative endeavor. The author asserts that the research has potential relevancy to a variety of other teaching contexts.     

Discourses about a teacher's self-initiated change in praxis: Storylines of care and support

At the foreground of this article is an account of an experienced science teacher's self-initiated change in praxis within an inquiry community. From classroom observation and interviews, data interpretations are made about the discursive practices of the teacher and his colleagues. In particular, the teacher's change in praxis is attributed to his dissatisfaction with previous practice, realization that alternatives were likely to provide better outcomes for his students, commitment to improving his practice, and a supportive school community in which teachers felt comfortable taking personal risks and engaging in professional discussions. The collaborative culture of the study site was characterized by the teachers' caring ethic for their students.     

‘It didn't have to be so hard’: the first years of teaching in an urban school

This article presents a case study of Mark Westin from his first to his fifth year of teaching fifth grade in an urban public school. Despite extreme management challenges and limited administrative support in a school with unusually high turnover, Mark persevered through his difficult novice years to become among the most respected and dedicated teachers in his school. Through classroom observations and interviews with Mark, I first present a snapshot of Mark's first year of teaching, followed by a longitudinal study of Mark's perceptions of his early years of teaching, gathered through observations, field notes and interviews during the succeeding four years. As Mark's confidence, experience and teaching competence grew, he became increasingly reflective and critical of his teacher preparation and his early teaching experiences, especially the lack of support he received from the school administration. A high proportion of teachers in similar situations leave teaching in the first several years. Mark's story helps to put a human face on the exceptions and offers his perspectives on improving teacher preparation and support.     

Classroom management as method and manner

We describe two case studies of experienced teachers whose classroom-management approaches, whilst quite different, appear seamless and in agreement with classroom manner and with the goals and desires they have for their students. We examine classroom management, manner, beliefs about classroom life and moral and intellectual goals for students, and classroom behaviour that directly informs students of expectations for virtuous conduct. The data include classroom observation and videotapes, and interviews with teachers. In developing these case studies, we join with the recent trend toward a more holistic view of the teacher and his or her conduct. The case studies focus on who a teacher is, what a teacher believes and how these beliefs are manifest in the teacher's conduct.     

A second-grade teacher's adaptive teaching during an integrated science-literacy unit

This case study explored the nature of one elementary school teacher's adaptive teaching during an integrated science and literacy unit. Data were collected during four consecutive weeks of instruction, weekly interactive planning sessions, 20 classroom observations, and 20 post-lesson interviews. Our analysis suggests that adaptations may be established during planning or emerge while teaching. This study also indicated that an adaptive teacher uses ongoing formative assessment to scaffold students' learning. A coding system that typifies how and why a teacher adapts instruction across disciplines can be used to examine adaptive teaching. Implications for teacher educators and researchers are discussed.     

Working while teaching,learning while working: students teaching in their own class

This paper examines the context of teacher education in which certain students work as teachers whilst at the same time they study in a teacher education programme. The two phenomena that are discussed are the integration of theory and practice, and learning while working. These are located in the wider framework of teachers' pedagogical thinking, and research‐based teacher education. The paper reports on students' experiences of the success of integrating theoretical studies in their work as teachers and the related issue of how a student's everyday grasp of classroom practice has been taken into account in their studies. The paper also raises the issue of the university–school relationship through students' estimations of the impact that their participation in teacher education has brought to the school in which they work and other key aspects of the university–school relationship.     

Students’ Argumentation Skills across Two Socio-Scientific Issues in a Confucian Classroom: Is transfer possible?

This paper argues the possible simultaneous development and transfer of students' argumentation skills from one socio-scientific issue to another in a Confucian classroom. In Malaysia, the Chinese vernacular schools follow a strict Confucian philosophy in the teaching and learning process. The teacher talks and the students listen. This case study explored the transfer of argumentation skills across two socio-scientific issues in such a Form 2 (8th grade) classroom. An instructional support to complement the syllabus was utilised. The teaching approach in the instructional support was more constructivist in nature and designed to introduce argumentation skills which is uncommon in a Confucian classroom. The two socio-scientific issues were genetically modified foods and deforestation. This paper presents a part of the bigger case study that was conducted. Data collected from written arguments were analysed using an analytical framework built upon Toulmin's ideas. The whole class analysis indicated progression in students' argumentation skills in their ability to give more valid grounds and rebuttals during the transfer. The individual analysis suggests progression in the majority of students' performance, while several students demonstrated non-progression when they faced a different socio-scientific issue.     

Teacher education students' views on class discussion: Implications for fostering critical reflection

In an attempt to understand what factors motivate teacher education students to participate in class discussions, questionnaires were administered to students from two teacher education programs in the U.S.A. In addition, 30 students were interviewed. Findings point to the estimation of the worth of one's ideas as a key issue in class discussions. Men and older students believed that their ideas made important contributions more often than other students. Findings revealed that the topic, the classroom climate, and advance preparation are central factors influencing students' participation. The importance of fostering students' reflection about, as well as through, discussion is emphasized.     

The effects on students' emotional and behavioural difficulties of teacher–student interactions,students' social skills and classroom context

Children's emotional and behavioural difficulties are the result of multiple individual, social and contextual factors working in concert. The current paper proposes a theoretical framework for interpreting students' emotional and behavioural difficulties in classrooms, by taking into consideration teacher–student interactions, students' social skills and classroom context. Based on Bronfenbrenner's model, according to which process, person and context are the main sources of children's development, the current paper combines three theoretical approaches: firstly, in terms of process, the systems communication approach, which refers to teacher–student interactions; secondly, in terms of person, social and emotional learning, which refers to children's social skills; and thirdly, in terms of classroom context, the achievement goal theory, with its emphasis on the mastery of classroom goal structure. Empirical support for the framework resulted in the administration of four instruments to 962 primary students: (a) QTI for teacher–student interactions, (b) MESSY for students' social skills; (c) CGS for classroom context; and (d) SDQ for students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. It was found that students' possession of social skills had a prominent role in the prediction of emotional and behavioural difficulties, while teacher–student interactions and classroom context also affected students' emotional and behavioural difficulties. This perspective provides educators with a theoretical and practical tool for understanding emotional and behavioural difficulties.     

Understanding children and ourselves: Teachers' reflections on social development in the classroom

Teachers' reflections are presented on the changes occurring while fostering children's social competence and skills in an intervention program. Classroom discussion on interpersonal relationships and conflict resolution was emphasized as a constructive teaching strategy in promoting children's social growth. The curriculum themes focused on friendship, the school community, and the family. The focus is on how the teachers perceived changes in their knowledge of students' social growth and their own teaching skills and attitudes towards working on sociomoral issues in the classroom. In addition, their reflections on changes in the students' social interactions and sense of classroom community are included.