A reconstruction of development of the periodic table based on history and philosophy of science and its implications for general chemistry textbooks

The objectives of this study are: (a) elaboration of a history and philosophy of science (HPS) framework based on a reconstruction of the development of the periodic table; (b) formulation of seven criteria based on the framework; and (c) evaluation of 57 freshman college‐level general chemistry textbooks with respect to the presentation of the periodic table. The historical reconstruction of the periodic table showed that the periodicity of the elements could be construed as an inductive generalization or as a function of the atomic theory. There is considerable controversy with respect to the nature of Mendeleev's contribution, and various alternatives are discussed: ordered domain; empirical law; and a theory with limited explanatory power. Accommodation of the elements according to their physicochemical properties is considered to be the major contribution of the periodic table by all textbooks, followed by contrapredictions of previously unknown elements (30 textbooks), and novel predictions (corrections of atomic mass) of known elements (10 textbooks). The relative importance of accommodation and prediction within an HPS framework is generally ignored. Few textbooks have attempted to explore the possible cause of periodicity in the table and very few textbooks have explored the nature of Mendeleev's contribution. The development of the periodic table as a sequence of heuristic principles in the form of a convincing argument has been ignored. The textbook approach of emphasizing that the development of the periodic table was an inductive generalization, and that Mendeleev had no model or theory, does not facilitate the spirit of critical inquiry that led the scientists to grapple with alternative interpretations, conflicts, and controversies. It is concluded that the development of the periodic table went through a continual critical appraisal (conflict and controversy), in which scientists presented various tentative theoretical ideas to understand the observed phenomena. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 42: 84–111, 2005     

Upper Secondary Students’ Understanding of the Use of Multiple Models in Biology Textbooks—The Importance of Conceptual Variation and Incommensurability

In this study we investigate students’ ability to discern conceptual variation and the use of multiple models in genetics when reading content-specific excerpts from biology textbooks. Using the history and philosophy of science as our reference, we were able to develop a research instrument allowing students themselves to investigate the occurrence of multiple models and conceptual variation in Swedish upper secondary textbooks. Two excerpts using different models of gene function were selected from authentic textbooks. Students were given the same questionnaire-instrument after reading the two texts, and the results were compared. In this way the students themselves made a classification of the texts which could then be compared with the researchers’ classification of the texts. Forty-one upper secondary students aged 18–19 participated in the study. Nine of the students also participated in semi-structured interviews. Students recognized the existence of multiple models in a general way, but had difficulty discerning the different models and the conceptual variation that occurs between them in the texts. Further they did not recognize the occurrence of incommensurability between multiple models. Students had difficulty in transforming their general knowledge of multiple models into an understanding of content specific models of gene function in the textbooks. These findings may have implications for students’ understanding of conceptual knowledge because research has established textbooks as one of the most influential aspects in the planning and execution of biology lessons, and teachers commonly assign reading passages to their students without further explanation.     

How in Spite of the Rhetoric,History of Chemistry has Been Ignored in Presenting Atomic Structure in Textbooks

Recent research in science education has recognized the importance of history and philosophy of science. This study has the following objectives:(a) To show how the importance of history of chemistry has been recognized in theclassroom, starting from the 1920s to the present; (b) How criteria based on history andphilosophy of science can be used to evaluate presentation of atomic structure in generalchemistry textbooks; (c) Comparison of the new (1970–1992) and old textbooks (1929–1967)with respect to the presentation of atomic structure. Results obtained show thatmost of the new and old textbooks not only ignore the history and philosophy of sciencebut also present experimental findings as a `rhetoric of conclusions'. It isconcluded that such presentations are not conducive towards a better understanding of scientificprogress. It is suggested that history and philosophy of science can be introduced in theclassroom not necessarily through formal courses in the history of chemistry or commentsand anecdotes, but rather by incorporating the `heuristic principles' that guided thescientists to elaborate their theories.     

Understanding Quantum Numbers in General Chemistry Textbooks

Quantum numbers and electron configurations form an important part of the general chemistry curriculum and textbooks. The objectives of this study are: (1) Elaboration of a framework based on the following aspects: (a) Origin of the quantum hypothesis, (b) Alternative interpretations of quantum mechanics, (c) Differentiation between an orbital and electron density, (d) Differentiation and comparison between classical and quantum mechanics, and (e) Introduction of quantum numbers based on electron density; (2) Formulation of five criteria based on the different aspects (a, b, c, d, and e), and (3) Evaluation of 55 freshman college‐level general chemistry textbooks. Results obtained show: Criterion 1, none of the textbooks described satisfactorily that Planck’s role in the origin of the quantum hypothesis was more at the level of an empirical adjustment, whereas Einstein provided the physical significance of the quantum hypothesis; Criterion 2, few textbooks (two satisfactory and four mentioned) included alternative interpretations of quantum mechanics (e.g., Bohm) and thus ignored that most theories are underdetermined by experimental evidence; Criterion 3, none of the textbooks described satisfactorily that orbitals are mathematical constructs and the shapes of the orbitals (s, p, d, f) are not derived from quantum mechanics but instead from electron density measurements; Criterion 4, although, quantum mechanics approaches classical mechanics as a limiting case, none of the textbooks presented a framework to facilitate transition in student understanding from classical to quantum mechanics (28 textbooks made a simple mention); and Criterion 5, few textbooks (one satisfactory, five mentioned) facilitated the introduction of quantum numbers based on experimental determination of electron density (photoelectron spectrum). It is concluded that the inclusion of these criteria in textbooks can facilitate students’ conceptual understanding of quantum numbers and electron configurations.     

The Oil Drop Experiment: Do Physical Chemistry Textbooks Refer to its Controversial Nature?

Most general chemistry textbooks consider the oil drop experiment as a classic experiment, characterized by its simplicity and precise results. A review of the history and philosophy of science literature shows that the experiment is difficult to perform (even today!) and generated a considerable amount of controversy. Acceptance of the quantization of the elementary electrical charge was preceded by a bitter dispute between R.A. Millikan and F. Ehrenhaft, that lasted for many years (1910–1925). The objective of this study was to investigate whether physical chemistry textbooks refer to the controversial nature of the experiment. Based on six criteria developed previously, 28 physical chemistry textbooks were evaluated. Analysis of the texts using six identified criteria demonstrated that the textbooks neither referred to the controversial nature of the experiment nor recognized the difficulty of the experimental procedure. Only a few texts even attempted to include any discussion of the history or philosophy of the experiment. The instructor of a physical chemistry course could include aspects of the Millikan–Ehrenhaft controversy to motivate classroom discussion and help facilitate an understanding of the role that controversy has in scientific progress.     

How are the Concepts and Theories of Acid–Base Reactions Presented? Chemistry in Textbooks and as Presented by Teachers

This paper investigates the views of science and scientific activity that can be found in chemistry textbooks and heard from teachers when acid–base reactions are introduced to grade 12 and university chemistry students. First, the main macroscopic and microscopic conceptual models are developed. Second, we attempt to show how the existence of views of science in textbooks and of chemistry teachers contributes to an impoverished image of chemistry. A varied design has been elaborated to analyse some epistemological deficiencies in teaching acid–base reactions. Textbooks have been analysed and teachers have been interviewed. The results obtained show that the teaching process does not emphasize the macroscopic presentation of acids and bases. Macroscopic and microscopic conceptual models involved in the explanation of acid–base processes are mixed in textbooks and by teachers. Furthermore, the non‐problematic introduction of concepts, such as the hydrolysis concept, and the linear, cumulative view of acid–base theories (Arrhenius and Brönsted) were detected.     

The presentation of gas properties in chemistry textbooks and as reported by science teachers

The presentation of gas properties in terms of the qualitative–quantitative mode and gas law sequence is examined by means of an analysis of 14 chemistry textbooks used in Australian secondary schools and of questionnaires on teaching approaches completed by 104 secondary science teachers. The findings indicate that current pedagogic practice involves minimal use of the qualitative relationships of the gas laws and moderate use of a simple-to-complex sequence. Given the conceptual complexity of the gas laws, the authors support a presentation approach with increased use of qualitative exercises and, in the initial stage at least, the use of a complex-to-simple model where the interrelationships among the gas laws are easier to establish.     

Atomic orbitals, molecular orbitals and related concepts: Conceptual difficulties among chemistry students

Students start the undergraduate quantum chemistry course with incomplete knowledge and many conceptual difficulties about quantum-chemical concepts. This work investigated the impact an undergraduate quantum chemistry course has on students’ knowledge and understanding of atomic orbitals, molecular orbitals and related concepts. A “post-factum” analysis of examination data from this course reveals that students; do not have a clear understanding of the concepts of atomic and molecular orbitals as well as of Slater determinants; have difficulty in understanding the conceptual similarity between real and complex mathematical forms of atomic orbitals; confuse the various atomic orbital representations; and, do not realise the approximate nature of atomic orbitals for many-electron atoms. Difficulties with other related concepts are revealed also. Some promising strategies for instruction and suggestions for secondary and general chemistry curricula are discussed.     

The paradigmatic change in mechanics: Implications of historical processes for physics education

Analysing the paradigmatic shift from Peripatetic to Galilean physics can help to understand students' difficulties in learning Newtonian mechanics. This article promotes the use of historical texts in physics teaching as a means to support students in becoming aware of the structural differences between everyday life and scientific views of the world. The question is: Does conceptual change require paradigmatic change?     

REFUTATION TEXT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF TWO DECADES OF RESEARCH

As people attempt to make sense of the world, they develop personal knowledge structures. These structures often contain misconceptions—inaccurate or incomplete information—that are highly resistant to change because existing knowledge networks must be restructured to accommodate counterintuitive information in a process known as conceptual change. Since textbooks are the dominant resource for science instruction in most classrooms, text-based methods of facilitating conceptual change need to be examined. Since the mid-1980 s, researchers have investigated the conceptual change potential of refutation text, a text structure that includes elements of argumentation and that has been described as one of the most effective text-based means for modifying readers’ misconceptions. In this paper, twenty years of refutation text research in science and reading education is reviewed and then a secondary analysis of those results is conducted to explore developmental aspects of the efficacy of refutation text. Although a developmental relationship was not revealed, two decades of research indicate that reading refutation text rather than traditional expository text is more likely to result in conceptual change.     

Analogies in chemistry textbooks

Abstract

This study combines a critical analysis of analogies found in eight chemistry textbooks used by Australian senior high school students with the views of the textbook authors about analogies in chemistry textbooks and teaching. Sixty‐two analogies were identified which described abstract chemical concepts such as atomic structure and collision theory. A range of styles, including pictorial analogies, were identified and the analogies were found to have variant amounts of analogical mapping and analogue explanation. Analogical limitations were rarely identified. Authors contended that they were cautious about including analogies in textbooks as analogies require a flexibility not available when they are set in print. It was argued that analogy was best applied as a strategy for teachers in response to them perceiving that students had misunderstood an original explanation.     

A Reconstruction of Structure of the Atom and Its Implications for General Physics Textbooks: A History and Philosophy of Science Perspective

Recent research in science education has recognized the importance of history and philosophy of science. The objective of this study is to evaluate the presentation of the Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr models of the atom in general physics textbooks based on criteria derived from history and philosophy of science. Forty-one general physics textbooks (all published in the United States) were evaluated on two criteria based on Thomson's work, three on Rutherford's work, and three on Bohr's work. Results obtained show that general physics textbooks do not systematically include a history and philosophy of science perspective. Most textbooks present an inductivist perspective in which experimental details are considered to be paramount. On the contrary, a historical reconstruction of the experimental details inevitably includes: the context in which an experiment is conducted, the theoretical framework that guides the scientist, and alternative interpretations of data that lead to conflicts and controversies. Examples are provided to show how historical reconstructions of atomic models can provide students an opportunity to appreciate how scientists work and science progresses. It is plausible to suggest that textbook presentations based on a history and philosophy of science perspective can perhaps arouse students' interest in the subject and hence lead to greater conceptual understanding.     

Identity Options in Russian Textbooks

This article introduces a new analytical approach to the study of identity options offered in foreign and second language textbooks. This approach, grounded in poststructuralist theory and critical discourse analysis, is applied to 2 popular beginning Russian textbooks. Two sets of identity options are examined in the study: imagined learners (targeted implicitly by the texts) and imagined interlocutors (invoked explicitly). It is argued that, while one text, Russian Stage 1, offers a richer variety of identity options for the students, neither book fully reflects the diversity of contemporary Russian society. The biases and oversimplifications identified in the texts represent lost opportunities for cross-cultural reflection; they may also negatively affect the students and deprive them of important means of self-representation and at times even self-defense. The discussion suggests some directions for future research inquiry, as well as for material writing and classroom practice that would promote intercultural competence and critical language awareness. Key words: identity, critical pedagogy, foreign language textbooks, Russian     

义务教育阶段师生对新课程教科书认同情况的研究

2001年开始的国家基础教育课程改革是一场全面而深刻的变革.教科书作为师生展开教学对话的文本、媒介和工具,师生对新教科书的认同情况将直接影响课程改革的进程.通过对师生基于教科书认同现状的文献梳理,发现教师对新课程教科书的内容选取及呈现方式等认同度不高,而学生对新课程教科书的插图、内容难度等的认同度较高.师生对教科书的认同程度受到教师对新课程的理解以及学生的差异、学习兴趣等的影响.     

Thought Experiments in the Theory of Relativity and in Quantum Mechanics: Their Presence in Textbooks and in Popular Science Books

This work investigates the presence of Thought Experiments (TEs) which refer to the theory of relativity and to quantum mechanics in physics textbooks and in books popularizing physics theories. A further point of investigation is whether TEs – as presented in popular physics books – can be used as an introduction to familiarize secondary school students with physics theories of the 20th century. The study of textbooks and popular physics books showed that authors of both types of books consider TEs as an important tool when presenting the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Furthermore, a qualitative research conducted in secondary education revealed that the historical TEs which were transformed into forms accessible to the public could trigger students’ interest and act as educational material to familiarize them with concepts and principles of the 20th century physics.     

AGING ISSUES IN SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS

The treatment of four issues related to aging was examined in this study: Social Security, civil rights, political power, and population trends in 19 secondary schools’ U.S. history and government textbooks. In these texts, only Social Security was given adequate treatment. The weakest area was “population trends.” The study concluded that for such a vital topic the coverage of aging issues in secondary textbooks was generally weak and insufficient. We recommend that the role of the aged throughout U.S. history should be addressed and that the rapid changes in demographics, particularly the “graying” of our population, should not be ignored in either history or government textbooks. Even with an expansion in texts of the four topics above, teachers will have to rely on supplementary materials as their primary sources of information.     

Reading about Women in World History Textbooks from One Feminist Perspective

The purpose of this study was to analyze the content on women in three secondary school world history textbooks used in the USA from one feminist perspective. The analyses involved recursively reading, coding, and interpreting all of the content pertaining to women across the three texts. The macroanalysis yielded a 16-category coding scheme that reflected the areas most emphasized in the presentation of women's contributions to world history, at least as described in each of the textbooks. The microanalysis was conducted to examine the language used for the content coded 'women's rights' and similarly for that coded 'power', 'fighters', or 'mediators'. The results of this feminist content analysis of world history textbooks signal the importance of teachers and students engaging in reading subtextually and resistantly.