LIFELONG EDUCATION AND THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM

The higher education system of the United Kingdom, of which the universities are only part, is changing rapidly. Although broad social conditions explain why universities should be centres of lifelong learning and specific institutional needs are in fact pushing them in this direction, changing demography is only one explanation among many. The kinds of programmes and related policies concerning students, teaching and curricula which are seen as relevant to continuing or lifelong education are widening and diversifying as the political and funding environment of higher education also changes. Research on continuing education and that generated by it are also being perceived differently. The new decade of the 1990's seems likely to witness significant changes in what is identified as continuing education as present trends in favour of integration or mainstreaming accelerate and new arrangements are made for more accessible and flexible forms of study both for degrees and for short courses. This process will be a part of a wider and more fundamental change as higher education moves somewhat towards a mass from an élite model and as the concept of a university and of a university education changes in step behind these changes in practice. The possibility exists that more fundamental changes in the initial undergraduate curriculum will also make universities more effective centres in terms of preparing their young students for lifelong learning.     

INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION IN CANADA: THE CONTRADICTIONS OF SPECIAL PROGRAMMES

This paper examines one particular response of the Canadian government to the issue of multi‐ethnicity in higher education: the constraints placed on people of Indian origin with regard to attendance at universities until the 1950's, and traces the historical development of special programmes within universities for Indian students. It suggests that while special programmes for Indian students may be a positive step in terms of Indian control of Indian education and the development of an infrastructure for both self‐government and economic development, such programmes are nevertheless problematic. In particular, special programmes tend to reinforce negative and potentially racist stereotypes about Indian culture. They suggest that Indian people trained in special programmes are only capable of dealing with other Indian people. The degrees granted by special programmes are devalued by employers. State efforts to increase the level of education amongst Indian people are aimed at creating a new set of agents of social control.     

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCES PLANNING AND THE AVAILABILITY OF PLACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

The relationship between the need for human resources in Nigeria and the availability of places in Nigerian higher education in the 1980's is critically examined. Data were collected, with the aid of a special instrument, on the intake of new entrants into humanities and science programmes. The analysis of the data showed that despite the quantitative expansion of universities in the 1980's, the supply of university places was not related to the real needs of Nigeria in terms of human resources. To redress this unharmonious relationship, in particular as education is trapped in a web of turmoil in the middle of an educational crossroad, the article makes a case for the vigorous pursuit of a rational comprehensive policy with built‐in but continuous planning and implementation strategies based on relations of “equity”.     

Entrepreneurial studies in higher education

Entrepreneurship is relatively new as a subject of formal study in universities. Its teaching can be traced back to 1947. Since then, the subject has caught on, and in the 1980s and 1990s, there was a veritable explosion in such offerings at universities in the United States. The subject came to Europe rather late, but here, too, courses and programmes are becoming increasingly numerous, particularly in the United Kingdom but also, now, in Belgium and in Germany. University programmes in Entrepreneurship can be “focused” or “university wide”. University‐wide programmes can be “magnet programmes” or “radiant programmes”. The author presents and describes these different kinds of programmes and cites examples of their implementation in different universities in Germany and abroad. Such education, she feels, will gain great importance in the Twenty‐First Century; however, courses will require innovative funding methods and, particularly, a great deal of private funding.     

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND THE UNIVERSITY: THE “PROBLEM SOLVING‐DECISION MAKING ACT” WITHIN A CRITICAL SYSTEM‐THINKING FRAMEWORK

Current human expectations are too high and cannot be met in the finite world of conflicting interests and unevenly distributed resources. While human activity has caused the current global environmental crisis, education has not prepared people to handle systems of such size and complexity. In order to survive, the time has come to make rational and intelligent decisions and accordingly to take appropriate actions. Thus, environmental education (EE) has become an imperative component of both science and liberal education. STES (Science‐Technology‐Environment‐Society)‐literate people in terms of the “Problem Solving‐Decision Making Act” is advocated as a precondition for the responsible and rational management of the environment in order to ensure future sustainable development; however, STES literacy requires critical system thinking capability on the part of all who are expected to actively and responsibly participate in the democratic decision‐making process. The needed leadership and contribution of the university in the endeavour to attain the ultimate goal of EE, STES‐literate citizens, is contingent on its readiness to restructure education including course offerings, teaching strategies, and evaluation means, as well as to modify environmental research programmes.     

THE ECOLOGICAL ASPECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN HUNGARY

Environmental education based on ecological knowledge should be present at all levels of education in Hungary. It should be interdisciplinary and should progress in a linear fashion from kindergarten through postgraduate studies. Its most important goal should be the formation of environmental consciousness in students through the application of pedagogical techniques which make them sensitive to the principles of ecology. It is particularly important that all teacher training programmes include a strong environmental consciousness component as well as instruction in interdisciplinary teaching techniques.     

HIGHER EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT: CHANGING CONDITIONS FOR DIVERSIFIED STRUCTURES OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The article begins with an overview of the history of the importance given by European systems of higher education to the twin questions of the proper structures of higher education and the link between higher education and employment. From the mid‐1950's to the present, the debates on the two questions have sometimes been closely linked and sometimes barely linked at all. The point is that the link between increased employment and higher education is very complex and that signals are unclear. There is no proof, for instance, that over the long‐term, graduates of non‐university higher education institutions will be better protected against unemployment than graduates of traditional universities, particularly those from non‐traditional and diversified programmes within these universities. Still a non‐hierarchical diversity of institutions and programmes seems best suited to the long‐term employment prospects of students. Also, information sources on higher education and employment must be made more accurate and more comprehensive.     

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN HUNGARIAN UNIVERSITIES

Environmental catastrophes can be avoided and sustainable development can be achieved only if starting from early childhood people are educated to appreciate environmental values, to understand environmental processes, to recognize environmental risks, and to adopt environmentally conscious attitudes, as consumers, as professionals, and as citizens. The development of environmental education in Hungary over the last twenty years has been characterized by the extension of environmental education to an increasing number of university faculties and colleges. A great variety of postgraduate courses in environmental studies have been established. Environmental blocks and special environmental subjects have been integrated into general curricula. The experience gained in postgraduate courses has been applied to undergraduate courses. The principle being followed is that environmental education should be a part of all suitable disciplines at all levels, including the disciplines of the social sciences and of the humanities. Existing shortcomings stem from the highly specialized nature, the inflexibility, and other general aspects of Hungarian higher education and from the failure to pursue positive tendencies. Consequently, environmental studies have not been integrated into all possible disciplines. Except in the cases of course programmes for professional environmentalists, the environmental education offered may not be sufficiently comprehensive. Moreover, it tends to be concentrated in technical and vocational training programmes, while lagging behind in the humanities and the social sciences, except in the case of economics. Hungary must seize the opportunity offered by the PHARE (Po‐logne Hongrie Aide à la Recherche et à l'Edu‐cation)Programme of the European Communities to speed up advances in environmental education.

     

PARTICIPATION OF USA UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

The concept of lifelong education encompasses a number of different types of educational programmes e.g. adult education, recurrent education as well as continuing education. The official legal definition of continuing education in the USA Educational Amendments of 1976 to the Higher Education Act states: “Continuing education programme” means post‐secondary instruction designed to meet the educational ‘ needs and interests of adults, including the expansion of learning opportunities for adults who are not adequately served by current educational offerings in their communities.

The following article presents participation by the US universities and colleges in this form of higher education. It is based oh the paper written by Dr. Rosalind K. Loving, Dean of the College of Continuing Education, University of Southern California and presented during the Salzburg Seminar on Continuing Education which was held from 6 to 26 August 1978 in Salzburg (Austria).     

ROUSSEAU,HAPPINESS, AND THE ECONOMIC APPROACH TO EDUCATION

Since the 1960s, the influence of economic thought on education has been steadily increasing. Taking Jean‐Jacques Rousseau's educational thought as a point of departure, Tal Gilead critically inquires into the philosophical foundations of what can be termed the economic approach to education. Gilead's focus in this essay is on happiness and the role that education should play in promoting it. The first two parts of the essay provide an introduction to Rousseau's conception of happiness, followed by an examination of the economic approach to education and the notion of human capital. In the course of this discussion, Gilead shows that increasing happiness is one of the economic approach's major aims. In the third part of the essay, he uses Rousseau's views to interrogate significant aspects of the economic approach to education. He then continues by highlighting some of the educational implications that stem from Rousseau's critique. Gilead maintains that Rousseau's ideas can provide valuable suggestions regarding how education might contribute to the promotion of happiness. The article concludes by proposing that while Rousseau's ideas on the matter should not necessarily be embraced, contemporary policymakers can learn some important lessons from them.     

CONTINUING EDUCATION,THE PROMOTION OF CULTURE,AND THE SOCIAL ROLE OF THE UNIVERSITY

For many years, the author has been thinking about the problem of how to combine continuing education courses in universities with efforts to promote the dissemination of culture in the broadest sense. He begins his article with two definitions, one of the concept of continuing education itself, the other of the concept of culture. He indicates that increasingly a popular demand is being manifested for courses combining both objectives, particularly on the part of those who had to interrupt their studies prematurely or who completed them some time ago. He cites two seminars currently being offered at the University oE Athens, one an interdisciplinary seminar in philosophy, organized eight years ago, the other, a seminar in the philosophy of art. Both of them have opened their doors to all interested persons. They have been extremely popular, despite the fact that enrol‐lecs earn no credit for attending them. With the aid of the appropriate national authorities, similar programmes could be created in other universities in the countries belonging to Unesco so as to respond to a genuine social need.     

THE FINANCIAL PARTICIPATION OF ENTERPRISES IN THE FUNCTIONING OF FRENCH HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

The article discusses and tries to reconcile two phenomena; that, on one hand, in France, higher education is seriously underfunded, and that, on the other hand, public and private sector enterprises are experiencing shortages in the availability of highly qualified senior staff. At the same time, the need to obtain funding for higher education from sources other than the public authorities is recognized. Ways in which business may contribute to the funding of higher education are discussed, stress being laid on the use of the so‐called apprenticeship tax collected from enterprises and used to support higher education in given areas of training. The functioning and the receipts of this tax are analysed from a neo‐liberal perspective in terms of regional economic development, the types of institutions and programmes which receive subsidies from it, and amount per student. One obvious conclusion is that enterprises are loathe to contribute to the financing of initial education. On the other hand, since they are increasingly willing to finance specific and specialized training, universities, as distinct from other types of higher educations institutions in France, but having the necessary facilities and teaching staff, have been able to seize opportunities offered them to create special further training courses of use to enterprises. Hence, universities receive the largest share of the receipts of the apprenticeship tax.     

高师环境教育的途径与模式

根据我国环境问题现状的紧迫性．我们认为在环境教育中应充分发挥高等师范院校“工作母机”的作用,以带动学校教育、社会教育和家庭教育全面而有效地发展。在高师环境教育中,应结合专业教育和素质教育,建立不同层次的教育实施体系,遵循“专业──专业渗透──素质提高”的基本模式,使环境教育工作适应可持续发展的战略要求。     

QUALITY CONTROL IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE AMOS‐SYSTEM

With the adoption in 1982 of the “Law of the Two‐Phase Structure”, which led to the restructuring of Dutch higher education and set strict time limits for the earning of degrees, both the universities and their students were required to increase their efficiency. One result has been that the universities have had to increasingly compete among themselves vis‐à‐vis the Dutch Ministry of Education for scarce resources, but at the same time, to cooperate among themselves and to take various corrective actions voluntarily so as to avoid having them imposed from above by the Ministry. One result of this new situation is the understanding that a system of external evaluation of given universities and programmes is needed. The Association of Cooperating Dutch Universities (VSNU) is elaborating a system of external quality control. The Ministry of Education through its Inspectorate already has the means at hand to conduct assessments. The proper way for individual universities to face the prospect of external evaluation, the author argues, is for them to create their own systems of internal evaluation. Such a system, the ‘Analysis Model pertaining to the Quality of Education in Faculties’ (the AMOS model according to its Dutch acronym), was developed at the Free University of Amsterdam. The remainder of this article describes the underlying philosophy, structure, and functioning of the AMOS system     

THE IMPLICATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Studies on intercultural education undertaken by the Council of Europe have highlighted a gap at the level of higher education between transmitted knowledge and the indispensable information needed by individuals living in the pluricultural contexts of contemporary European societies. A task of higher education is to inculcate in teachers an intercultural perspective both for work in schools and for activities in community contexts and perspectives. The intercultural dimension should not simply address itself to a special category of culturally different students, but rather, should address all students so as to sensitize them to the cultural pluralism which surrounds them and to educate them to successfully master it. Certain disciplines have a privileged status with regard to the transmission of useful information for the education of all citizens living in pluricultural societies: history, geography, anthropology, philosophy, psychology, economics, sociology, and law. Several examples of intercultural education programmes offered by higher education institutions are presented in this study (in Portugal, Canada, and France) as well as reference to activities sponsored by the Higher Education and Research Division of the Council of Europe.     

Common elements of capstone projects in the world's top-ranked engineering universities

‘Capstone’ is a metaphor used to describe a final achievement that builds upon previous works and encapsulates them. Capstone projects are included in engineering curricula to integrate multi-disciplinary subjects and teach professional skills that are difficult to impart in a traditional lectured course. Since these projects serve to transition students into professional engineers, they have a direct impact on a university's industry reputation and ranking. Therefore, it is worthwhile to study the capstone programmes implemented at the world's top-ranked engineering universities to discover common elements which characterise them. In this paper, common elements of the capstone programmes implemented in mechanical and aerospace engineering undergraduate programmes in the world's top-ranked engineering universities are identified and analysed to determine established best practices. These practices can be modelled and applied to the pedagogy of engineering programmes at universities around the world to improve the development of professional skills of future graduates.     

Teacher education programmes delivered at a distance: An examination of distance student perceptions

Recent technological developments have greatly influenced the ways American universities deliver educational course offerings to students at a distance. The perception of pre-service teachers in distance education programmes is germane to the planning and delivery of distance education courses in teacher education departments in the future. The results of this American study revealed a differing perception between male and female students in the area of course structure, student/teacher interaction, overall course satisfaction and peer interaction. As a result of this study, recommendations are provided for teacher preparation programmes to improve distance education course offerings for prospective teachers in the USA and implications for educators involved in teacher preparation internationally.     

THE CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHICAL EDUCATION

Strangely, the concept of philosophical education is not much in use, at least not as a philosophical concept. In this essay, Steinar Bøyum attempts to outline such a philosophical concept of philosophical education. Bøyum uses Plato's Allegory of the Cave, René Descartes's life of doubt, and Immanuel Kant's criticism of metaphysics as paradigms or defining examples of this concept. Bøyum's aim in this essay is not exegetical; rather, he hopes to describe these examples in a way that will let their character as conceptions of philosophical education show forth. His underlying aims are to show which forms such conceptions may take and why philosophical education is or should be an important topic for both philosophy and education.     

DEVELOPING ADULT EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES: A POLITICAL VIEW

The development of adult education in research‐oriented, élite, universities has always been problematic. This situation arises both from the specific characteristics of this sector of educational activity, which challenge the traditional values and practices that prevail in universities, and with the specificity of universities as organizations. The central argument that is made in the article is that the decision‐making process underlying the development of adult education programmes in universities can be best described as a political process. We report on a case study that was conducted in Belgium in the light of this theoretical framework that highlighted a set of organizational conditions and strategies that proved to be particularly conducive to the successful development of an adult education programme in that kind of organizational setting.