FACTS AND TRENDS

In this and the next issue of the Bulletin, we are publishing résumés of the papers presented by the participants at the Consultation for the Preparation of a study on Access to Higher Education in Europe, which was organized by CEPES in Bucharest from 18 to 20 October 1977.

A monograph containing all the documents of this meeting is currently being prepared and will be published later in 1978.

(For information on this meeting see N°6 November‐December 1977 issue of this Bulletin).     

Patterns of Teacher Education in Italy

An outline of the organisation of education in Italy stresses its characteristics as a centralised system supported by consultation with grass‐roots levels. Local coordination should be ensured by the so‐called ‘Organi Collegiali’ (participatory bodies).

The system is aware of the need to promote a real change in the pedagogical‐educational approach to teaching and learning, and recent reforms have implemented structural innovations and have required changes in the teachers’ roles and functions.

The new professional profile of the teacher points out the need for initial and in‐service education and training; given the insufficient provisions available, in 1979 the Ministry of Education, in cooperation with OECD, has initiated a project for introducing PRESET pilot projects in a number of Italian universities.

The MPI/OECD Project has gone through a four‐phase preparation process, including a background report, a national seminar, feasibility studies, planning of pilot projects.

The basic ideas were to improve the scientific/cultural and methodological preparation of teachers: curricula of study must ensure an appropriate balance between scientific knowledge in a subject‐matter or in a discipline area and educational studies. Teaching practice is considered as essential all through the course of study.

Starting November 1983 the University of Bologna will start a PRESET course of study for primary school teachers as a joint activity between the Faculty of Education and the Faculty of Sciences.

Other projects are on study at other universities.     

Cognitive Style and Problem Behaviour in Boys Referred to Residential Special Schools

The paper considers aberrant behaviour in the context of cognitive style with reference to both diagnosis and treatment.

Aims.

The aims of the study were to investigate whether the style of pupils with behaviour problems was different from that of children with no reported problems, and also to consider how pupils of different style manifested their problem behaviours.

Sample.

The sample comprised 83 male pupils aged 10‐18 years from two residential special schools.

Method.

The sample were given the Cognitive Styles Analysis to assess their positions on the Wholist‐Analytic and Verbal‐Imagery style dimensions. The pupil records of the special school pupils who were at the extreme of the style dimensions were also examined.

Results.

When their style characteristics were contrasted with a Comparison Sample of 413 12‐16‐year‐old males attending 10 secondary schools, the special school pupils had a significantly higher proportion of both Wholists and Verbalisers, than the Comparison Group. Further, the inspection of the records indicated that the types of social behaviour and behaviour problems exhibited varied with style, and particularly on the Wholist‐Analytic dimension.

Conclusion.

The results were considered to have implications for the origins and treatment of problem behaviour.     

SICA: a CAD Tool for System Analysis

In this paper, the main features of SICA are discussed: These include

˙ implementing a bloc diagram of a system using a flexible data structure and a high level language, and

˙ time domain and frequency domain analysis of an implemented system.

The system could be linear, non-linear, continuous or discrete. Also outlined are the main extensions and applications of SICA.     

Place et rôle des stages dans la formation initiale des enseignants en France

Preservice teacher education in France consists of:

subject oriented studies in a university,

recruitment by means of a state competitive examination which may be prepared in a university,

professional training in a training centre, including both subject oriented studies and practice periods in classrooms.

Preschool and primary teacher training includes two years at a university to obtain the required degree for competition and then two years in a college of education. Secondary level teacher training includes more years at a university as the level of competition is high. It takes at least three years to become a graduate, four years in the other case. But the preparation of the competition in itself requires more time for most people. When admitted to the competitive examination, the teacher has one year in a training centre.

This paper will present:

1. the legal basis, curricula, content, structure and aims of practical studies at the two levels (preschool‐primary/secondary levels);

2. the difference and convergence of thinking about practical studies at the two levels: the main principle seems to be that pedagogical and practice studies make up for a lack of theoretical knowledge, but that, consequently, they are not considered really useful for those who do have theoretical knowledge;

3. the difficulties of achieving the official objective concerning an integrated training with links between theoretical studies and practice periods,

4. an innovative approach to this problem by means of a case study which put into practice the hypothesis brought out in the research I have led at the INRP about primary school teacher training.

The organisational models and the place given to practice periods in the whole teacher education raise the problem of what is a professional teacher training and what is its aim.     

Desiderata for Research into Historical Concepts of Teacher Training: an attempt to update research into the history of teacher training in Germany

Summary A study of the history of teacher training in Germany reveals some fascinating blind spots which have been ignored for decades.

Pedagogical historiography must now liberate itself from Prussian dominance and take a keener interest in the activities which took place away from the better‐known centres of reform.

The basically bipartite teacher training system for a tripartite school system has evolved into contradictory models of integration in the different federal states.

     

Agricultural information and knowledge network in rural India: a case of Bihar

Purpose: The key informants in a village setup were studied to understand the existing social and knowledge systems of farmers, their structure, and relationships between different actors. The purpose is to identify different channels of information and use them as a means to disseminate agricultural technologies and related information to farmers.

Design: We use the network map analysis in a case study approach as a tool to demonstrate the linkages between the key actors and stakeholders in the information network of farmers.

Findings: The government institutions are well networked among themselves but have limited interactions with non-government sources. Farmers in Bihar have strong linkages with few network actors, who are important nodes in the social knowledge network. The study showed heterogeneity and complexity in the network shape and structure across different districts.

Practical Implications: Knowledge networks and social networks are the drivers of information sharing and play a significant role in the diffusion of agricultural technology and related knowledge. Understanding these networks provides a platform for introducing the agricultural technologies and getting connected to a wider group of farming communities.

Theoretical Implications: The study shows that the network is formed by different actors and their role determine the nature and shape of the network. Knowledge of this heterogeneity is important in designing or revamping agricultural information systems.

Originality: Information and knowledge networks are least explored in the agricultural information dissemination process. Some studies have shown the role of actors and social networks, but this study uniquely explores and presents the heterogeneity of these networks.     

Between Tradition and Progress: Oldenburg University's Model Plan for Comprehensive Teacher Training

Since early 1974, a pilot project for integrated teacher training has been in progress at Oldenburg University. This is currently the only extensive teacher training reform which exist in the German Federal Republic.

All plans for this integrated training program are designed to provide training normally encompassed by the traditional two‐stage programm.

The integrated training program includes:

- studies in the areas of education and social science;

- studies in two major subjects which are later to be taught at school;

- practical studies and activities.

The new model leads to the following degrees:

- nine semesters of study for a Certificate of Qualification for primary and lower‐level secondary school;

- eleven semesters for a Certificate of Qualification for higher‐level secon dary school and the education of exceptional children.

Theoretic training in major subject areas and related didactic training as well as education and social studies take place chiefly in the form of projects. A basic assumption is that interdisciplinary projects which are practice‐ and problemoriented permit a highly desirable integration of theory and practice on the whole.

In the project, contact teachers are an essential link between field practice at school and academic training at the university. Contact teachers are under contact to the university for an extended period of time (generally three years). In place of remunation, their teaching loads are reduced by ten hours per week.

In 1978/79 the project will be put to the test as the first generation of students prepares for State Board Examinations.     

Knowledge systems and value chain integration: the case of linseed production in Ethiopia

Purpose: This study uses data from a sample of 150 oilseed farming households from Arsi Robe, Ethiopia, to assess the impact of different knowledge bases (education, training and experience) and their interactions on linseed productivity.

Methodology: A multiple regression analysis was employed to assess the combined effect of the knowledge bases, factors such as age of the household head, land size, marketing channels and geophysical factors (such as land slope) on linseed productivity.

Findings: The findings reveal no differences in productivity between trained and untrained farmers. They further show that training and the interaction between training and experience positively influence productivity. Our findings, however, reveal farmer education to have an inverse yet insignificant effect on productivity. Furthermore, we found that factors such as the slope of the land and the choice of marketing channel also play an important role in influencing productivity.

Practical implications: Moving away from the traditional top-down approach could be the answer to avoid a mismatch between the information given by trainers and what the farmers actually need.

Theoretical implications: The study used interaction variables of knowledge bases, and attempted to demonstrate the importance of a tacit knowledge base, which is often not well documented and therefore neglected in research.

Originality/value: The research demonstrates the combined effects that interactions between several knowledge bases have on the productivity of linseed farmers.     

VALUING ACADEMIC RESEARCH: TOWARDS A POLICY FOR HONG KONG'S FUTURE UNIVERSITIES

This article makes a preliminary assessment of the general strategies required to foster and evaluate research and scholarship in Hongkong's higher education sector.

It is particularly concerned with the means to be used in the measurement of research productivity in the ‘emerging universities’, namely the two Polytechnics and the Baptist College.

In recent years a number of Polytechnic‐style institutions in Australia have undergone a process of ‘becoming universities’ and It Is proposed that Hongkong may be able to learn from their experience.

An Important focus in this paper Is on the development of equitable and realistic indices of performance that will be accepted by academic and administrative staff In calculating the merit and worth of their efforts in relation to research — which for a number of Polytechnic and College staff has not been a significant aspect of their overall academic role.     

Spatial concepts and young children

This presentation looks at how young children learn basic geometrical concepts. Piaget's developmental levels will be examined to determine how they fit into the current research project. These will be compared with materials from the Soviet States that have recently become available from the NCTP in the USA.

The research project was constructed in a number of early childhood centres in a variety of socio‐economic areas. All of these centres had an early intervention program in operation so that special needs or ‘exceptional’ children could be observed along with mainstream children.

The researcher is investigating children's learning styles to determine the children's preferred learning styles when exploring spatial concepts. The question of whether exceptional children progress through the same stages and in the same order as the mainstream children is also being considered.

Spatial concepts in early childhood is an area that seems to have been neglected by researchers in favour of the development of number concepts. This research project aims to add to our knowledge of how young children learn spatial concepts.

     

The language of compromise — interpreting industrial requirements in educational terms

There is no doubt that it is possible to identify some of the key factors which operate in the area of interaction between industry and engineering educators, and the following are typical:

— industry must have a clear idea of its requirement for qualified engineers;

— the role of the engineer in industry — extending from research, development and production into the service area and into society (with the implied social responsibility);

— the time constraints in the educational system in relation to the rate of growth of knowledge and the consequent problems associated with course planning;

— the continuing challenge to the role of university education arising from the demands of industry and from very close links with sectors of industry or particular industrial companies.     

Agricultural innovation systems and farm technology adoption: findings from a study of the Ghanaian plantain sector

Purpose: We assess farm technology adoption in an integrated analysis of social networks and innovation in plantain production in Ghana. The paper explores the strength of social networks in the agricultural innovation systems (AISs) and the effect of AISs on adoption of improved farm technology.

Methodology/Approach: The paper uses social network analysis (SNA) tools to identify, map and analyze the AISs and the two-stage Heckman selection model. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods allows testing the differential effects of social networks on technology adoption.

Findings: We find weak innovation systems in the study area. Farmers are central in the social networks but have little to no influence in the innovation system perspective. Social network capital plays a critical role in improving adoption of improved farm technology.

Practical implication: Focal farmers are important actors disseminating farm technology. They should be supported by policies to interact more effectively with research and extension agents. Strengthening the role of social networking in the innovation system will enhance adoption of improved farm technology.

Theoretical implications: The inclusion of SNA indicators in the adoption model is a novel approach for quantifying the effect of the innovation system and contributes to understanding the roles of different actors. Further validation of the SNA indicators is needed for a comprehensive analysis of the innovation system.

Originality/value: The innovation system approach is useful for researchers and policy-makers by encouraging them to consider new innovation actors and relationships in technology development and dissemination. Combining quantitative and qualitative methods can help to identify starting points for policies to promote innovations among farmers.     

A novel framework for identifying the interactions between biophysical and social components of an agricultural system: a guide for improving wheat production in Haryana,NW India

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to develop a conceptual framework with related analysis methodologies that identifies the influence of social environment on an established cropping system.

Design/methodology/approach: A stratified survey including 103 villages and 823 farmers was conducted in all districts of Haryana (India). Firstly, technical efficiency (TE) was modeled using biophysical data including grain yield, seeding rate, wheat varieties, tillage, sowing date, seed source, harvesting method and the application of fertilizer, herbicide and irrigation. The relationship between TE and social community factors such as farm size, farmer age, level of education and agricultural support programs was analyzed by regression tree.

Findings: TE was lower with the farmers who only have education to a primary standard. Farmers with high TE scores were mostly between 35 and 40 years of age, and a higher TE association was common for farmers who use technical publications. Social individual factors such as farmers’ views on the future of farming were also analyzed across different TE levels.

Practical implications: Farmers with lower TE are an obvious target for production improvement, particularly given the understanding that the overall production yield gap is small in Haryana.

Theoretical implications: Our conceptual framework shows a quantitative way to establish the socio-ecological linkage, and to identify the opportunities for changes in management with extension services leading to productivity improvement.

Originality/value: This paper provides a novel framework with detailed methodology to effectively identify the socio-economic factors that limit the biophysical production in an agricultural system.     

Reproduction in Education: an elaboration of current neo‐marxist models of analysis

This paper represents an attempt to develop current understanding of reproduction in education.

Commenting on current neo‐Marxist models of analysis, we argue that more attention needs to be given to the universalising practices of schools if reproduction is to be fully understood. Drawing on evidence taken from a national study of Irish [1] schools, we show how the state's intervention in schooling can have universalising effects. However, we argue that the state has only intervened in the realm of educational provision, not in the realm of consumption, hence inequalities persist.

The second part of the paper tries to explain why state intervention in education is largely limited to provision. In effect, this means examining the processes of universalism and particularism within the context of the capitalist state. Here we argue that actions by state managers (particularly in response to resistances developing in schools) are restricted by an array of vested interest groups within the educational site. While contradictions lead to resistances in school, these resistances generate counter‐resistances from those class and/or status groups, which have their own agenda within the educational system. The managers’ need to reproduce both the skills and attitudes necessary for the capital accumulation which funds the state machinery is, of course, another powerful controlling force.     

The Contributions of Enrichment Activities Towards Science Achievement

This study investigated whether enrichment activities would improve achievement in science.

One hundred and eighty subjects took part in the study. They were assigned to two experimental, two control and one Hawthorne control groups. Experimental subjects participated in enrichment activities held outside the school. Control subjects were not given these activities while the Hawthorne control group was taken out on excursions unrelated to their science lessons.

The Cooperative Science Test (COST) was used to assess the acquisition of science concepts while science achievement was based mainly on school science examination scores.

The results indicated that the experimental subjects showed significantly greater improvement in concept attainment and science achievement. Correlations between science concept attainment and science examination scores were positive and significant.

The study concluded that participation in enrichment activities relevant to school science would improve science achievement.     

The Professional Development of Adult Educators: Some Structural and Methodological Considerations

The case is stated for a scheme of professional training for adult educators, which should at once be

_____ comprehensive and unified;

_____ able to take into account the particular possibilities of individual adult educators; and

_____ easily adjustable to the particular needs within the community.

Such a scheme can only be realized through the application of a modular structure. A scheme like this is being developed at Gwent College of Higher Education for a professional training programme which will give a Certificate in Continuing Education, conferring full teacher status in adult and further education. This development is used to illustrate the points the author wants to make. The development of a programme on such a scheme raises considerable structural and methodological problems, which are discussed and compared with what is done elsewhere.     

Suitable for whom? The case of system of rice intensification in Tanzania

Purpose: This study examines the suitability of the system of rice intensification (SRI) for diverse small-scale farmers in Tanzania by exploring if poor and non-poor farmers adopt the system to a similar extent.

Originality: The suitability of low-external input technologies such as SRI for diverse African farmers is a contentious issue. Existing studies suggest that adoption may be skewed away from poorer farmers, but no studies have explicitly categorized farmers who participate in adoption of SRI.

Methods: Farmers exposed to SRI were randomly surveyed. Sample farmers were categorized into three socioeconomic groups – wealthier, middle-wealth, and poorer – using factor and cluster analysis approaches. Wealth category is then used in a logit model to determine probabilities of adopting SRI practices across the different groups.

Findings: The results indicate that middle-wealth group adopt SRI to a greater extent compared to the wealthier and poorer groups. The extent of adoption by wealthier and poorer groups is similar, although constraining circumstances differ. Access to factors that consistently explained adoption: contact with extension services, land with water, and labor, vary systematically among groups.

Theoretical implication: Low adoption is often assumed on reduced exposure to a technology, and non-adopters are expected to eventually adopt. The results suggest, however, that farmers, who have not adopted, may not do so, even after being exposed. SRI as a package does not fit their socioeconomic conditions.

Practical implications: To support adoption across all wealth categories, extension should focus on promoting individual practices rather than the package to enable farmers adopt practices that fit their socioeconomic characteristics.