Guess Where: The Position of Correct Answers in Multiple-Choice Test Items as a Psychometric Variable

In this article, the authors show that test makers and test takers have a strong and systematic tendency for hiding correct answers—or, respectively, for seeking them—in middle positions. In single, isolated questions, both prefer middle positions to extreme ones in a ratio of up to 3 or 4 to 1. Because test makers routinely, deliberately, and excessively balance the answer key of operational tests, middle bias almost, though not quite, disappears in those keys. Examinees taking real tests also produce answer sequences that are more balanced than their single question tendencies but less balanced than the correct key. In a typical four-choice test, about 55% of erroneous answers are in the two central positions. The authors show that this bias is large enough to have real psychometric consequences, as questions with middle correct answers are easier and less discriminating than questions with extreme correct answers, a fact of which some implications are explored.     

再谈英汉否定是非问句的答句

通过讨论英汉否定是非问句内部在倾向性上的不一致性,着眼问话人心理倾向性考察实际交际中对否定是非问句的回答,结合英汉是非问句系统的的不同特点,来分析否定是非问句两者在答句方面的异同。     

Clickers in college classrooms: Fostering learning with questioning methods in large lecture classes

What can be done to promote student–instructor interaction in a large lecture class? One approach is to use a personal response system (or “clickers”) in which students press a button on a hand-held remote control device corresponding to their answer to a multiple choice question projected on a screen, then see the class distribution of answers on a screen, and discuss the thinking that leads to the correct answer. Students scored significantly higher on the course exams in a college-level educational psychology class when they used clickers to answer 2 to 4 questions per lecture (clicker group), as compared to an identical class with in-class questions presented without clickers (no-clicker group, d = 0.38) or with no in-class questions (control group, d = 0.40). The clicker treatment produced a gain of approximately 1/3 of a grade point over the no-clicker and control groups, which did not differ significantly from each other. Results are consistent with the generative theory of learning, which predicts students in the clicker group are more cognitively engaged during learning.     

The development of speech act comprehension in mentally retarded individuals and nonretarded children

Understanding the speech act(s) a sentence conveys requires that a listener follow conversational rules and use clues provided by the sentence and the context in which it is spoken. To trace the development of speech act comprehension in mentally retarded and nonretarded school age children, we examined their responses to sentences such as Would you open the telephone book? and Could you roll the shoebox? These sentences can be intended as questions or as directives. Nonretarded adults follow the "answer obviousness" rule and interpret a sentence of this type as a question if the answer to the question is nonobvious to the speaker, but as a directive if the question has an obvious answer. We manipulated answer obviousness by varying both the context and linguistic properties of the interrogative. Retarded and nonretarded individuals at the nonverbal MAs of 5, 7, and 9 years were studied. Retarded and nonretarded individuals at all MAs followed the answer obviousness rule and used the contextual and linguistic clues available. There were only minor differences between MA-matched retarded and nonretarded subjects despite the fact that the retarded subjects had serious deficits in receptive linguistic competence. The implications for understanding the development of comprehension in retarded persons and for understanding the relations among language, cognition, and communication in general are considered.     

Options and limitations of the cognitive psychological approach to the treatment of dyslexia

If the field of cognitive psychology is to avoid the use of introspective methods, it must focus on the objective norms or rules for correct performance of cognitive tasks and not on subjective processes. In this manner, the cognitive approach will be more logical than empirical. Cognitive psychology alone is not able to answer the question "Why is it that some people have difficulty following some of the cognitive norms or rules?" Behaviorism and connectionism can make more important contributions here. In the treatment of dyslexia, emphasis must be placed on the fact that reading is a skill that requires both automatization and awareness. To have a flexible and functional combination of these, we must borrow from cognitive psychology, connectionism, and behaviorism.     

The effects of different feedback strategies using computer-administered multiple-choice questions as instruction

This study investigated the effects of using different forms of computer-based feedback on high school students' learning of science material. The basic design consisted of two conditions of instructional support (text and questions vs. questions only), two testings (immediate vs. retention), five levels of similarity between lesson and posttest questions, and five feedback conditions: knowledge of correct response (KCR), delayed KCR, answer until correct (AUC), questions only (no feedback), and no questions. Results showed significant benefits for feedback over no feedback, with AUC becoming more advantageous and delayed feedback less so as lesson-posttest question similarity decreased. Also, with decreased question similarity and the availability of supporting text, overall feedback effects tended to decrease. The results are discussed in terms of the information processing effects of the different feedback forms, a factor that CBI designers often fail to exploit in planning feedback conditions.This article is based on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the faculty of Memphis State University by the first author. Reprint requests should be addressed to Steven M. Ross, Department of Foundations of Education, Memphis State University, Memphis, TN 38152.     

Responding to children’s answers: questions embedded in the social context of early childhood education

This article presents analysis of question–answer sequences during problem inquiry between a teacher and two children in an early childhood crèche in New Zealand. Conversation analysis is used to reveal which questions the teacher asks, how children answer the questions, and the teacher’s responses to the child’s answers. Although adults’ ‘effective’ questions were identified and promoted in the REPEY study much less attention has been given to how adults respond to children’s answers. It is imperative to investigate the sequences of talk which follow a question in order to establish how teaching and learning is co-constructed in context, one utterance at a time and as a joint project between teacher and child. The findings suggest that task problems and emotional problems are treated in a similar way during problem inquiry, highlighting the complexity of interactions when teachers are providing both emotional care and educational support for young children.     

中小学教师课堂提问行为中的误区及改进对策

以"通过提问和理解促进学习和思考(QUILT)"为框架分析目前中小学教师课堂提问中存在的误区,发现:在准备问题环节,启动式问题引发的认知操作过于单一、引思式问题表述不够清晰;在陈述问题环节,随机发问的小问题数量过多、师生不明确需要运用的思维类型或认知方式;在激发学生回答环节,给予学生回答问题的机会不均等、学生缺乏回答问题规则的必要训练;在对学生回答进行加工和反馈环节,加工式问题提问质量不高、反馈大都没有产生积极意义。针对每一环节的问题相应地提出了改进的策略。     

The role of background knowledge in text comprehension for children learning English as an additional language

Children learning English as an additional language (EAL) often experience difficulties with reading comprehension relative to their monolingual peers. While low levels of vocabulary appear to be one factor underlying these difficulties, other factors such as a relative lack of appropriate background knowledge may also contribute. Sixteen children learning EAL and 16 of their monolingual peers, matched for word reading accuracy, were assessed using a standard measure of reading comprehension and an experimental measure of reading comprehension for which relevant background knowledge was taught before assessing understanding. Tests of receptive and expressive vocabulary were also completed. Results confirmed lower levels of reading comprehension for children learning EAL for both standard and ‘background’ controlled measures. Analysis of comprehension by question type on the experimental measure showed that while both groups made use of taught knowledge to answer inferential questions, children learning EAL had specific difficulties with both literal questions and questions requiring the interpretation of a simile. It is suggested that relevant background information should be used to facilitate children's text comprehension. Furthermore, several factors, especially vocabulary differences, but also text search strategies, context use and comprehension monitoring skills, may contribute to the comprehension difficulties experienced by children learning EAL.     

Reading in examination‐type situations: the effects of text layout on performance

Examinations are conventionally used to measure candidates' achievement in a limited time period. However, the influence of text layout on performance may compromise the construct validity of the examination. An experimental study looked at the effects of the text layout on the speed and accuracy of a reading task in an examination‐type situation. A survey of the reading strategies used in examinations was conducted to help in defining the reading context in which text layout may have an effect. A set of guidelines was also derived from research on typographic features of text and these were used to select three text layouts (intended to be more or less legible) from the layouts used in English language reading examinations. Results of the experiment showed that task time was significantly shorter and the number of correct answers per second was significantly higher with the layout conforming to legibility guidelines. Participants' judgements indicated that this layout was also the easiest in which to find answers and the most attractive. The main conclusion of the study is that text layout affects performance in a task that involves reading text to search for specific information in order to answer questions on it under time pressure. Consequently, the construct validity of examinations may be compromised by confounding legibility with reading skills.     

Spatial ability and its role in organic chemistry: A study of four organic courses

The relationship between spatial ability and performance in organic chemistry was studied in four organic chemistry courses designed for students with a variety of majors including agriculture, biology, health sciences, pre-med, pre-vet, pharmacy, medicinal chemistry, chemistry, and chemical engineering. Students with high spatial scores did significantly better on questions which required problem solving skills, such as completing a reaction or outlining a multi-step synthesis, and questions which required students to mentally manipulate two-dimensional representations of a molecule. Spatial ability was not significant, however, for questions which could be answered by rote memory or by the application of simple algorithms. Students who drew preliminary figures or extra figures when answering questions were more likely to get the correct answer. High spatial ability students were more likely to draw preliminary figures, even for questions that did not explicitly require these drawings. When questions required preliminary or extra figures, low spatial ability students were more likely to draw figures that were incorrect. Low spatial ability students were also more likely to draw structures that were lopsided, ill-proportioned, and nonsymmetric. The results of this study are interpreted in terms of a model which argues that high spatial ability students are better at the early stages of problem solving described as “understanding” the problem. A model is also discussed which explains why students who draw preliminary or extra figures for questions are more likely to get correct answers.     

Changing Conceptions in the Relative Sequence of Major Topics in General Science Textbooks (1911-1934)

The authors examined the relationship between fifth-grade students' verbal ability level and the adaptive nature of the questions that these students asked in attempting to find a correct synonym for vocabulary items. Questions were divided into necessary questions (questions posed after a wrong provisional answer) and unnecessary questions (questions posed after a right provisional answer). Another division of questions was into helpful questions (questions that led to a correction of a wrong provisional answer) and harmful questions (questions that led to a shift from a right to a wrong answer). Also examined were discontinued inquiries (instances in which a student decided to break off an inquiry in favor of inferring the right alternative). The results showed that students with high verbal ability asked more necessary questions and stepped up the number of unnecessary questions for difficult items, signaling that these questions were asked to increase confidence in knowing. Students' verbal ability did not affect the frequency of discontinued inquiries, but a significant effect was found for the helpfulness of these inquiries. A detailed account of the various processes and stages involved in students' questioning is presented.     

Using seen examination questions in Economics: an evaluation

This paper presents a detailed quantitative analysis of the use of seen questions within examinations in Economics option modules at one UK university. 4622 marks for seen and unseen questions awarded over a period of three years were analysed; the impact of personal characteristics was analysed using a sub-sample. It was found that the number of attempted answers to the seen question was somewhat lower than might be expected if students had engaged in random selection of examination questions and the proportion of students who attempted to answer the seen question varied both across modules and years. The majority of students who answered the seen question did so in only one module, and answering the seen question in more than one module did not have a positive impact on obtaining a good mark for the seen question. Most notably students who answered seen questions were more likely to obtain a good mark for seen than for unseen questions. The personal factors found to correlate with the likelihood of answering a seen question were gender, performance in Economics core modules, and type of school attended. Reasons for the findings are discussed and set within the context of innovation in Economics assessment.     

Separating the research question from the laboratory techniques: Advancing high‐school biology teachers' ability to ask research questions

Inquiry is essentially a process in which research questions are asked and an attempt is made to find the answers. However, the formulation of operational research questions of the sort used in authentic scientific inquiry is not a trivial task. Here, we set out to explore the possible influence of separating the research question from the laboratory techniques used to try and answer this question on teachers' understanding of laboratory techniques and their ability to formulate research questions. We conducted a laboratory course in microbiology in which the laboratory techniques were presented in an explicit and generalized manner, in the context of specific research questions. During the course, teachers' understanding of laboratory techniques improved as reflected in their answers to exercises given throughout. In addition, teachers' ability to ask research questions, analyzed using Dillon's classification of research questions, also improved. When reflecting upon the course, some teachers attributed the change in their ability to ask research questions to their increased knowledge of techniques, whereas others did not. We conclude that to facilitate research‐question‐asking skills among teachers, they should be provided with knowledge of the relevant laboratory techniques in an explicit fashion. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 1296–1320, 2012     

公诉人与证人法庭问答中的预设研究

在庭审问答中,公诉人通常使用预设策略询问证人,以获得对控方有利的推理。公诉人在使用一般疑问句、附加疑问句、信息疑问句和陈述疑问句时带有一定的预设,而预设是否成立取决于证人对含预设问话的回答。是否对公诉人问话中的预设进行确认,取决于公诉人问话的目的与证人的立场是否一致。当双方目的一致时,证人倾向于采取合作态度,承认问话中的预设;当双方目的冲突时,证人倾向于采取不合作态度,否认问话中的预设;当证人对公诉人的问话目的未知时,合作与否是未知的;当证人认为公诉人的问话目的为中性时,合作与否是个变量。     

论教育研究的逻辑起点

逻辑起点是对理论体系和相关研究的基本问题进行回答所依赖的关键概念,直接影响到基本问题的回答,并进而影响整个理论体系和相关研究。教育研究逻辑起点的定位是从现在研究的逻辑起点出发,通过对教育研究逻辑起点的概念及现状分析着手,探讨教育的本质及其内在规定性,从而提出以教育问题为逻辑起点的教育研究。这就要求研究者增强问题意识,以促进教育研究的发展。     

Educational Research and Policy: Epistemological Considerations

This article is centrally concerned with the sort of knowledge that can and should inform educational policy—and it treats this as an epistemological question. It distinguishes this question from the more extensively explored question of what sort of knowledge in what form policy‐makers do in fact commonly take into account. The article examines the logical and rhetorical character of policy and the components of policy decisions and argues that policy demands a much wider range of information than research typically provides. Either the research task or commission has to be substantially extended or the gap will be filled by information or thinking that is not derived from research. One of the gaps between research of an empirical kind and policy is the normative gap. In the final section the article points to the inescapably normative character of educational policy. Of course the values that inform policy can be investigated empirically, but this kind of enquiry cannot tell us what we should do. There is a role for research/scholarship and more rather than less intelligent and critical argumentation in addressing these normative questions as well as the empirical questions that underpin policy.     

Providing the answers does not improve performance on a college final exam

In the context of an upper-level psychology course, even when students were given an opportunity to refer to text containing the answers and change their exam responses in order to improve their exam scores, their performance on these questions improved slightly or not at all. Four experiments evaluated competing explanations for the students’ failure to correct their answers. Experiments 1–3 ruled out ceiling effects, cognitive bias from a previous response and item selection effects, respectively, as explanations of the result. Experiment 4 showed that no more than 41% of the students comprehended the paragraphs well enough to find the answer. Furthermore, even this 41% of the students did not put sufficient effort into finding the answer, regardless of the impact on their grade, when they were not coerced to do so.