Who's afraid of research questions? The neglect of research questions in the methods literature and a call for question-led methods teaching

This paper examines the place of research questions in the teaching of research methods. It describes the neglect of research questions in both methods texts and the wider academic literature, but notes that this situation is not peculiar to educational research and that similar concerns have been raised in the social sciences more widely, as well as in the humanities. It explores some possible explanations for this neglect and argues that the lack of attention paid to research questions may be related to the availability of appropriate resources, the structure and content of methods texts and the way some research is conducted and presented. Question-led methods teaching is presented as both a logical approach to the teaching of research design and data analysis and also a strategy that may help to overcome some of the weaknesses in current practice. It is argued that focusing on research questions can encourage capacity-building among new researchers and may discourage the early formation of ‘mono-method’ identities.     

Instructional effectiveness of higher-order questions: The devil is in the detail of students’ use of questions

Research has repeatedly established that the theoretical benefits of various scaffolds do not match their actual impact on learning. It has been argued that the instructional effectiveness of scaffolds largely depends on very detailed aspects of the learning activities associated with the scaffolds within specific environments. From this perspective and, in order to predict and control learning outcomes in the context of specific instances of scaffolds, there is a need for a detailed cognitive analysis of learning activities (e.g. analyses of students’ scaffold use). Accordingly, the current study investigated how students actually use adjunct questions while studying a text and how the quantity and quality of usage determine students’ learning outcomes (performance). Forty-two university students in two conditions were required to study a short science text for 15 min. Results revealed that the quality of students’ use of instructional devices accounted for their final performance.     

Characteristics of teachers’ choice of examples in and for the mathematics classroom

The main goal of the study reported in our paper is to characterize teachers’ choice of examples in and for the mathematics classroom. Our data is based on 54 lesson observations of five different teachers. Altogether 15 groups of students were observed, three seventh grade, six eighth grade, and six ninth grade classes. The classes varied according to their level—seven classes of top level students and six classes of mixed—average and low level students. In addition, pre and post lesson interviews with the teachers were conducted, and their lesson plans were examined. Data analysis was done in an iterative way, and the categories we explored emerged accordingly. We distinguish between pre-planned and spontaneous examples, and examine their manifestations, as well as the different kinds of underlying considerations teachers employ in making their choices, and the kinds of knowledge they need to draw on. We conclude with a dynamic framework accounting for teachers’ choices and generation of examples in the course of teaching mathematics.

Is exam hell the cause of high academic achievement in East Asia? The case of Japan and the case for transcending stereotypes

High student achievement across East Asia is often explained as an outcome of highly competitive, stress‐inducing college entrance exams across the region. This ‘exam hell’ drives students to study longer and harder than their peers worldwide, a race that leads—unsurprisingly—to higher marks in international comparisons such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Yet, the race comes at a considerable cost: psychological pressure, forfeited childhoods, regimes of rote memorisation, lack of creativity and private outlays for cram schools. In this article, we seek to refute this outdated narrative by focusing on changes in Japanese education over the past three decades. We first analyse quantitative data for learning time based on three longitudinal surveys conducted by researchers in Japan to show that learning time for Japanese upper secondary students declined during 1980–2000 (Study 1). We then turn to analyse PISA 2015 data to show that now Japanese students study less than their peers in major Anglo‐American countries: the USA, the UK and Australia (Study 2). These findings run counter to well‐worn images frequently rehearsed in both the academic and popular literature. In helping to remove one of the most persistent stereotypes about East Asian education, we seek to help make visible other explanations for East Asian student achievement.     

Does choice matter for school choice? An instrumental variables analysis of the effect of choice on parental satisfaction in charter schools

I employ ordered probit regression and a new instrumental variable to compare the Fall 2015 parental satisfaction survey results of open-enrollment charters to district-conversion charters. Choice status in Arkansas charter schools is largely beneficial to parental satisfaction. Specifically, parents with children in open-enrollment charters had between a 17-percentage point and 32-percentage point higher likelihood of grading their current school as an A or responding as Highly Satisfied in six of nine quality categories. I find no evidence that parents rate the quality of schools similar to the analysts at the Arkansas Department of Education or that satisfaction differs in oversubscribed schools.     

What is the Role of Intelligence in the Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities? Issues and Clarifications

A fundamental assumption in the identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) has been that the presence of a severe discrepancy between ability and academic achievement is a valid marker for the presence of a SLD. This assumption is based on the notion that discrepant low achievers constitute a unique group of children who are different in a number of ways from nondiscrepant low achievers. Several meta‐analytic reviews contrasting discrepant and nondiscrepant low achievers fail to reveal significant differences between these two groups on measures of phonetic analysis, pseudoword decoding, word identification, spelling, oral reading fluency and other measures of literacy development and related phonological processing skills. This paper discusses the role of intelligence in identifying children with SLD and presents data based on correlational analyses and hierarchical regression analyses showing that intelligence is not a strong predictor of reading achievement and does not predict responsiveness to remedial instruction. These data also indicate that direct measures of responsiveness to intervention (RTI) strongly predict later reading achievement in tutored children from 1st grade through 4th grade. The combined results suggest that RTI approaches to the identification of SLD may have greater utility than psychometric approaches based on IQ scores or individual profile analysis.     

Tools for the classroom? An examination of existing sociometric methods for teacher use

Despite the recent technical and theoretical advances in the investigation of children's social relations, the inherent complexity of these methods may prevent their easy integration into the classroom. A simple and effective tool can be valuable for teachers who wish to investigate students' social realities in the classroom. Therefore, the present study aims to identify an effective sociometric method for educator's use in the classroom. Nine separate sociometric categorisations were created from peer reports of grade one students (N = 748). Methods that have different collection methods (nominations or ratings) show surprisingly low agreement, unlike those with the same collection method. Methods based on peer nominations showed the strongest correlations with students' behavioural traits. Based on these results, we discuss the relevance and usefulness of such methods for use by classroom teachers in identifying students' social realities.     

Why become a teacher? Student teachers’ perceptions of the teaching profession and motives for career choice

The aim of the study is to discursively identify student teachers’ perceptions of the teaching profession early in their education and their motives for this career choice. Students wrote a letter sharing thoughts on why they want to become a teacher, how they regard the teaching profession and if someone inspired them in their career choice. The empirical data consists of 259 student texts from three Swedish teacher education programmes. The study employed a qualitative method denoting different categorizations compared to previous studies, emphasising the idea of multiple motives for career choice and the link to student teachers’ evolving pedagogical identity. Major differences can be distinguished among the programmes, emphasising different main motives and shifting incipient pedagogic identities. The results indicate the value of organising teacher education programmes drawing on multiple motives, which is expected to contribute positively to completion of teacher education and teacher retention in future profession.     

Do emotions and prior performance facilitate the use of the learner-generated drawing strategy? Effects of enjoyment,anxiety, and intramathematical performance on the use of the drawing strategy and modelling performance

The use of self-generated drawings has been found to be a powerful strategy for problem solving. However, many students do not engage in drawing activities. In this study, we investigated the effects of the enjoyment of the drawing strategy, anxiety about the drawing strategy, and prior intramathematical performance on the use of the drawing strategy and modelling performance. We explored the role of the drawing strategy as a mediator between emotions and modelling and whether intramathematical performance moderated the effects of emotions (N = 220, mean age 14.5 years). Enjoyment and anxiety with respect to generating drawings and intramathematical performance predicted the use of the drawing strategy. Enjoyment positively affected modelling performance indirectly via the use of the drawing strategy. Anxiety negatively affected modelling performance via the use of the drawing strategy for students with lower intramathematical performance. Our findings demonstrate that experiencing activating emotions (i.e., enjoyment and anxiety) with respect to strategies and prior intramathematical performance are important for strategy use and modelling performance. Implications for the theory of self-generated drawing and the control-value theory of achievement emotions and practical implications for training and supporting the drawing strategy are discussed.     

Sixth grade mathematics teachers’ intentions and use of probing, guiding, and factual questions

This case study of a first-year and an experienced teacher presents an analysis of the place and frequency of three types of questions: probing, guiding, and factual. We examined the use of these questions in the course of five lessons, in order to study the relationship between the part of the lesson and types of questions asked. In addition, we interviewed the teachers to gain insights into their reasons for asking different types of questions. Both teachers asked many more factual questions than other types of questions regardless of their teaching strategies. Both asked more probing questions during the summary part of the lessons than in other parts. The first year teacher asked more probing questions overall than the experienced teacher, except in a lesson in which the experienced teacher engaged student with manipulatives. Guiding questions were rarely used by either teacher. In the interviews, both teachers said asking higher order questions was important for better students’ learning, even though they asked relatively few probing or guiding questions. Using the indicators we developed for question types, we found that the two teachers were aware of the functions of questions they used. Even after a considerable amount of time had elapsed, they were able to recall the lesson from a video clip and explain why they used questions with particular students or in a specific situation     

The Concepts of Heat and Temperature: The Problem of Determining the Content for the Construction of an Historical Case Study which is Sensitive to Nature of Science Issues and Teaching–Learning Issues

Historical case studies of scientific concepts are a useful medium for showing how scientific ideas originate and how they change over time. They are thus a useful tool for conveying knowledge about the nature of science. This paper focuses on the concepts of heat and temperature and discusses some issues related to choosing the content for a historical case study which incorporates not only nature of science perspectives but understandings related to what we know about the teaching and learning of these concepts. The case study is designed for first-year university chemistry students as an introduction to their study of thermodynamics. The paper includes a general chemistry textbook analysis of the heat and temperature concepts and a discussion of the caloric theory of heat, thermometry, and a brief survey of how the energy concept transformed our understanding of heat and temperature.     

Examining the shaping of teachers’ pedagogical orientation for the use of technology

Teachers’ current uses of technologies still tend to replicate traditional and/ or administrative practices, with research indicating that the pedagogies required for the effective integration of educational technologies are not yet in evidence amongst the majority of teachers. In order to conceptualise what could be considered effective pedagogies for the use of technology, greater understanding of what informs teachers’ particular approaches and how teachers come to change their approaches over time is required. Succinctly, what is needed is a deep understanding of a teacher’s developmental process for their conceptualisation of the relationship between technology and pedagogy. Through an in-depth, two-year case study methodology, three teachers’ journey to use game-based technologies in their classrooms was examined. The results provide valuable insights into the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices about the use of technologies; trigger points in teachers’ journeys that influence change in their pedagogical orientation for the use of technology; and rich stories of innovation in teaching. This study has implications for teacher professional development and supporting effective technology integration.     

Can the use of background music improve the behaviour and academic performance of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties?

Historically, there have been many claims regarding the beneficial effects of music on behaviour and development, but there has been little empirical work to verify them. Our present research studied the effects of providing background music in the classroom on the behaviour and performance in mathematical tasks of ten children attending a school for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties, who exhibited a high frequency of disruptive behaviour. There was a significant improvement in behaviour and mathematics performance for all the children. The effects were particularly marked for those whose problems were related to constant stimulus-seeking and over-activity. Improvements were also observed in improved co-operation and a reduction in aggression during the lessons immediately following the study.     

Why use learning outcomes in higher education? Exploring the grounds for academic resistance and reclaiming the value of unexpected learning

Learning outcomes are now mandated in higher education courses across Europe. However, their impact on teaching and student learning is both uncertain and an issue for debate. In this paper, we explore (1) what is meant by learning outcomes in diverse contexts and (2) whether policy and practice governing learning outcomes accord with developments in learning theories, especially regarding sociocultural approaches that have drawn significant interest since the 1990s (Engeström 1987; Lave and Wenger 1991). Shepard’s (Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4–14, 2000) publication is particularly salient to our examination due to her identification of an emerging paradigm to assist in the understanding of the relationships among teaching, learning and assessment. Employing recent work on conceptualisations of learning outcomes and a four-quadrant taxonomy (Prøitz in Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 22(2), 119–137, 2010, 2014), we discuss relevant learning theory approaches. This article is a conceptual investigation exploring the grounds for the assumption that learning can be predefined in terms of (expected) outcomes. Specifically, we discuss this assumption from the perspective of recent developments in learning theories. We argue that introducing learning outcomes predominantly for policy and management purposes may actually weaken the learning outcomes’ potential to direct teaching and learning and to improve the quality of both.     

Examining research into the use of data walls for teaching and learning: How are they being implemented within data use cycles?

Data walls, used to display student data within schools, are a growing phenomenon internationally. Drawing on a conceptual model of data use, this systematic review examined 32 empirical sources from compulsory education settings to evaluate claims about the impact of data walls on teaching and learning. The review found details regarding goals for data walls and the displayed information, but there was limited evidence of how data analysis was used to guide improvement action and evaluation of impact. The review concluded that there is currently insufficient empirical research evidence to substantiate or refute claims about their educational effects.     

Analyzing the use of history in mathematics education: issues and challenges around Balacheff’s cKȼ model

Part of the international reflection on the use of history in mathematics teaching consists in a quest of frameworks and models suitable for empirical studies. Following this demand, this paper explores the way Balacheff’s cK? model, a model taken from the didactics of mathematics, can be used in the analysis of learning at student level. In the first part of this paper, Balacheff’s cK? model (conceptions, knowledge, ?oncepts) is shortly presented, and in the second part, the relationship between the epistemological background of the model and the use of the history of mathematics is explored in order to show a possible suitableness. The third part addresses an example of a school activity (about ancient Indian geometry) in which the model is applied and the historical issues clarified. Questioning the role of problems both in the cK? model and in the use of history, the last part shows how a study at the students’ conception level enlightens the way in which historical elements can interact with contemporary mathematical learning.     

The pursuit of excellence or the search for intimacy? The forced‐choice dilemma of gifted youth

Educators often fail to recognize that the intellectually gifted differ from their age peers in their social and emotional development as much as in their intellectual and academic characteristics. A dilemma peculiar to gifted youth arises through the interaction of the psychosocial drives towards intimacy and achievement, which complement each other in students of average ability, but which place the gifted student in a forced‐choice situation. If the gifted child chooses to satisfy the drive for excellence he or she must risk forfeiting the attainment of intimacy with age peers; if the choice is intimacy, the gifted may be forced into a pattern of systematic and deliberate underachievement to retain membership in the social group. Homogeneous grouping of gifted students is suggested as a partial solution to this dilemma.