The Role of Extended Time and Item Content on a High‐Stakes Mathematics Test

The premise of a great deal of current research guiding policy development has been that accommodations are the catalyst for student performance differences. Rather than accepting this premise, two studies were conducted to investigate the influence of extended time and content knowledge on the performance of ninth‐grade students who took a statewide mathematics test with and without accommodations. Each study involved 1,250 accommodated students (extended time only) with learning disabilities and 1,250 nonaccommodated students demonstrating no disabilities. In Study One, a standard differential item functioning (DIF) analysis illustrated that the usual approach to studying the effects of accommodations contributes little to our understanding of the reason for performance differences across students. Next, a mixture item response theory DIF model was used to explore the most likely cause(s) for performance differences across the population. The results from both studies suggest that students for whom items were functioning differently were not accurately characterized by their accommodation status but rather by their content knowledge. That is, knowing students' accommodation status (i.e., accommodated or nonaccommodated) contributed little to understanding why accommodated and nonaccommodated students differed in their test performance. Rather, the data would suggest that a more likely explanation is that mathematics competency differentiated the groups of student learners regardless of their accommodation and/or reading levels.     

Trends in Performance and Growth by Students With and Without Disabilities on Five State Summative Assessments

Indicators of student academic growth are desired in state accountability systems in order to approximate student learning over time and attribute observed growth to schooling inputs. Through an extant analysis of five states’ assessment data, this study offers evidence about whether longitudinal match rates and measures of growth differ at the state level for students with disabilities, relative to students without disabilities. There were three main findings: 1) In states in which a modified assessment was offered, students with disabilities were more likely to have missing prior year scores, and consequently missing growth scores; 2) Low scoring students, many of whom had a disability, were more likely to have missing prior scores on the state general assessment, and consequently missing growth scores; 3) Students with and without disabilities showed similar growth using transition and gain score definitions of growth, but students with disabilities had lower growth when estimated via a regression-based model. Measurement and policy considerations are discussed.     

Faculty willingness to accommodate students with learning disabilities: a comparison among academic divisions

One hundred seven faculty members at a northwestern college responded to a questionnaire devised to assess faculty willingness to provide students with learning disabilities instructional, assignment, examination, and special assistance accommodations. Faculty responses to the questionnaire were analyzed to determine if differences existed among faculty in the colleges of Education, Business, and Arts and Sciences. Results indicate that, in general, faculty were willing to provide students with learning disabilities accommodations, but that differences exist among the three academic divisions as to faculty willingness to provide students accommodations. The implications of these results for colleges and universities and future research are discussed.     

UNDERSTANDING TEST‐TYPE ASSIGNMENT: WHY DO SPECIAL EDUCATORS MAKE UNEXPECTED TEST‐TYPE ASSIGNMENTS?

We interviewed special educators (a) whose students with disabilities (SWDs) were proficient on the 2008 general education assessment but were assigned to the 2009 alternate assessment based on modified achievement standards (AA‐MAS), and (b) whose students with mild disabilities took the 2008 alternate assessment based on alternate achievement standards (AA‐AAS) and then the 2009 AA‐MAS. We explored teachers’ rationales for test‐type assignment, student characteristics, and quality of instruction to determine the test‐type decisions’ appropriateness. All teachers based their decisions on combinations of factors in the guidelines plus subjective and noninstructional factors. Findings raised concerns about the subjectivity of the assessment assignment system and the inappropriate grade‐level instruction for SWDs. Future research, implications of these findings, and limitations are discussed.     

The University Experiences of Students with Learning Disabilities

To explore the university experiences of students with learning disabilities (LD), 63,802 responses to the 2014 Student Experience in the Research University Survey were analyzed. Compared to other students, those with self‐reported LD (5.96 percent) had difficulty with assignments and had more obstacles caused by nonacademic responsibilities and imposed by their skill levels. Students with self‐reported LD sensed more bias toward people with disabilities on campus, and they were less satisfied with their overall experience. Interactions between disability status and age suggested even more challenges for older students who self‐reported LD. Approximately one‐third of students who self‐reported LD received accommodations. The rate of accommodations was higher among individuals who were wealthy, who lived alone, and who were out‐of‐state students. Compared to students who self‐reported LD but reported no accommodations, those with accommodations had more contact with faculty and less difficulty with assignments.     

Do Proper Accommodation Assignments Make a Difference? Examining the Impact of Improved Decision Making on Scores for English Language Learners

Does it matter if students are appropriately assigned to test accommodations? Using a randomized method, this study found that individual students assigned accommodations keyed to their particular needs were significantly more efficacious for English language learners (ELLs) and that little difference was reported between students receiving incomplete or not recommended accommodations and no accommodations whatsoever. A sample of third and fourth grade ELLs in South Carolina (N = 272) were randomly assigned to various types of test accommodations on a mathematics assessment. Results indicated that those students who received the appropriate test accommodations, as recommended by a version of a computerized accommodation taxonomy for ELLs (the selection taxonomy for English language learners accommodations; STELLA), had significantly higher test scores than ELLs who received no accommodations or those who received incomplete or not recommended accommodation packages. Additionally, students who were given no test accommodations scored no differently than those students that received accommodation packages that were incomplete or not recommended, given the students' particular needs and challenges. These findings are important in light of research and anecdotal reports that suggest a general lack of systematicity in the current system of assigning accommodations and a tendency to give all available accommodations regardless of individual child characteristics. The results also have important implications for how future accommodation research should be structured to determine the benefits of particular accommodations and accommodation packages. This study would suggest that control and treatment groups should be assembled based on specific student needs in order for direct comparisons to be made.     

The validity and comparability of entrance examination scores after accommodations are made for students with LD

Every year, thousands of college and university applicants with learning disabilities (LD) present scores from standardized examinations as part of the admissions process for postsecondary education. Many of these scores are from tests administered with nonstandard procedures due to the examinees' learning disabilities. Using a sample of college students with LD and a control sample, this study investigated the criterion validity and comparability of scores on the Miller Analogies Test when accommodations for the examinees with LD were in place. Scores for examinees with LD from test administrations with accommodations were similar to those of examinees without LD on standard administrations, but less well associated with grade point averages. The results of this study provide evidence that although scores for examinees with LD from nonstandard test administrations are comparable to scores for examinees without LD, they have less criterion validity and are less meaningful for their intended purpose.     

Notes on authors

Abstract

Although both the number of online learning opportunities and students with disabilities in higher education has increased over the last two decades, students with disabilities may be overlooked. The purpose of this study was to examine attitudes toward requesting accommodations in the online learning environment among college students with disabilities compared with requesting accommodations in the face-to-face learning environment. Accommodations refer to those adjustments and modification made to instructional and/or curricular requirements in order for students with disabilities to fully participate in a course (Rehabilitation Act of 1973). Results indicate that students with disabilities did not have significantly different attitudes toward requesting accommodations as a whole in the face-to-face versus online learning environments. Results, however, do indicate that students who report having visible disabilities appear to have more positive attitudes toward requesting accommodations in the online versus face-to-face learning environment compared with students who report having hidden disabilities.     

Podcasts on Mobile Devices as a Read-Aloud Testing Accommodation in Middle School Science Assessment

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a digitized podcast to deliver read-aloud testing accommodations on mobile devices to students with disabilities and reading difficulties. The total sample for this study included 47 middle school students with reading difficulties. Of the 47 students, 16 were identified as students with disabilities who received special education services. Participants were randomly assigned to three experimental testing conditions, standard administration, teacher-controlled read-aloud in traditional group delivery format, and student-controlled read-aloud delivered as a podcast and accessed on a mobile device, and given sample end-of-year science assessments. Based on a factorial analysis of variances, with test conditions and student status as the fixed factors, both student groups demonstrated statistically significant gains based on their testing conditions. Results support the use of podcast delivery as a viable alternative to the traditional teacher-delivered read-aloud test accommodation. Conclusions are discussed in the context of universal design for learning testing accommodations for future research and practice.     

Understanding students’ conceptions of task assignments

Building on research emphasizing the importance of task in reading performance, the present study examines students’ conceptions or definitions of five common academic task assignments (i.e., argument, essay, opinion, summary and research tasks). Results showed that while students have robust schema for some task assignments (e.g., argument, research report), citing a large variety of task elements in defining each of these assignment, other task assignments are only superficially conceptualized by learners (e.g., opinion, essay). While prior work has demonstrated the important role of task assignment in students’ text processing and performance, this is among the first studies to associate emergent differences not only with the tasks assigned but also with students’ task conceptions. Given the emphasis placed on argument tasks in supporting deeper level processing, we were especially interested in students’ conceptions of argument tasks vis-à-vis summary tasks. Students’ conceptions of these and other task assignments were compared using Cochran’s Q, a non-parametric alternative to the repeated measures ANOVA. Finally, linear regression found students’ conceptions of an argument task to be associated with performance on an argument writing task assignment. For instance, students considering argument construction to require citation use was associated with their inclusion of citations in their written responses. This study is among the first to examine students’ own conceptions of common task assignments and to link task conceptions with performance. Implications for instruction are discussed.     

The Effect of Linguistic Simplification of Science Test Items on Score Comparability

The use of accommodations has been widely proposed as a means of including English language learners (ELLs) or limited English proficient (LEP) students in state and districtwide assessments. However, very little experimental research has been done on specific accommodations to determine whether these pose a threat to score comparability. This study examined the effects of linguistic simplification of 4th- and 6th-grade science test items on a state assessment. At each grade level, 4 experimental 10-item testlets were included on operational forms of a statewide science assessment. Two testlets contained regular field-test items, but in a linguistically simplified condition. The testlets were randomly assigned to LEP and non-LEP students through the spiraling of test booklets. For non-LEP students, in 4 t-test analyses of the differences in means for each corresponding testlet, 3 of the mean score comparisons were not significantly different, and the 4th showed the regular version to be slightly easier than the simplified version. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by pairwise comparisons of the testlets, showed no significant differences in the scores of non-LEP students across the 2 item types. Among the 40 items administered in both regular and simplified format, item difficulty did not vary consistently in favor of either format. Qualitative analyses of items that displayed significant differences in p values were not informative, because the differences were typically very small. For LEP students, there was 1 significant difference in student means, and it favored the regular version. However, because the study was conducted in a state with a small number of LEP students, the analyses of LEP student responses lacked statistical power. The results of this study show that linguistic simplification is not helpful to monolingual English-speaking students who receive the accommodation. Therefore, the results provide evidence that linguistic simplification is not a threat to the comparability of scores of LEP and monolingual English-speaking students when offered as an accommodation to LEP students. The study findings may also have implications for the use of linguistic simplification accommodations in science assessments in other states and in content areas other than science.     

Impact of Adaptive Materials on Teachers and their Students with Visual Impairments in Secondary Science and Mathematics Classes

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, important in today’s world, are underrepresented by students with disabilities. Students with visual impairments, although cognitively similar to sighted peers, face challenges as STEM subjects are often taught using visuals. They need alternative forms of access such as enlarged or audio‐converted text, tactile graphics, and involvement in hands‐on science. This project focused on increasing teacher awareness of and providing funds for the purchase of supplemental adaptive resources, supplies, and equipment. We examined attitude and instructional changes across the year of the programme in 15 science and mathematics teachers educating students with visual impairments. Positive changes were noted from pretest to posttest in student and teacher perspectives, and in teacher attitudes towards students with disabilities in STEM classes. Teachers also provided insights into their challenges and successes through a reflective narrative. Several adolescent students resisted accommodations to avoid appearing conspicuous to peers. Teachers implemented three strategies to address this: providing the adaptations to all students in the class; convincing the student of the need for adaptation; and involving the class in understanding and accepting the student’s impairment. A variety of teacher‐created adaptations for various science and mathematics labs are reported. Another finding was many adaptations provided for the student with visual impairment benefitted the entire class. This study supports the claim that given knowledgeable, supportive teachers, and with appropriate accommodations such as tactile or auditory materials, students with visual impairments can be as successful and engaged as other students in science and mathematics.     

Instructors’ willingness to provide instructional accommodations for students with disabilities in selected universities of Ethiopia

The purpose of this study was to examine instructors’ willingness to provide instructional accommodations for students with disabilities in universities. Questionnaire was distributed to a total of 252 instructors from four universities and quantitative data were generated. Then appropriate quantitative methods of data analysis were employed. The results indicated that the majority of instructors participated in this study found to have positive willingness to provide instructional accommodations. Concerning the relationship between instructors’ willingness and background variables, the result revealed that, a statistically significant mean score difference existed between groups of background variables like location of university, age, Special Needs Education course, teaching methodology training, awareness raising training on Inclusive Education and experience in teaching students with disabilities. Finally, using exploratory factor analysis, this study showed that there were four components or factors that represent the underlying constructs of willingness to provide instructional accommodations items.     

The relationship between instructional and assessment accommodations in an inclusive state accountability system

We investigated the kinds of instructional and assessment accommodations students with disabilities receive, and the extent to which instructional accommodations match assessment accommodations. Most students who had IEPs in specific content areas received instructional accommodations in those areas, and there were no differences by disability type. We provide data on the specific types of accommodations used. Overall, students' assessment accommodations matched their instructional accommodations, though many students received testing accommodations that had not been received in instruction. Implications are discussed for IEP teams who make decisions about instructional and assessment accommodations.     

Are separate room test accommodations effective for college students with disabilities?

Abstract

College students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or learning disabilities are frequently allowed to complete examinations in a separate, distraction-reduced setting. Although separate room test accommodations are believed to provide students with equal access to testing and thereby improve performance, little experimental research has examined their effects on actual test scores. We randomly assigned college students to complete a high-stakes Spanish language placement examination in either a group or separate room setting. Then, we categorized students based on their (1) disability status, (2) history of test accommodations, and (3) self-reported history of test anxiety. Results showed a significant setting x disability status interaction. Contrary to expectations, all students performed equally well in the group setting, but students with disabilities earned significantly lower scores than their classmates without disabilities when tested in a separate room. Similar results were found when we restricted our analyses to students with a history of test accommodations. Separate room testing had no effect on the scores of students with test anxiety. Altogether, our findings suggest that separate room testing does not mitigate the effects of ADHD, learning disabilities, and/or test anxiety on performance and, in some cases, may actually lower test scores.     

Examining calculator use among students with and without disabilities educated with different mathematical curricula

This study assessed if students with and without disabilities used calculators (fourfunction, scientific, or graphing) to solve mathematics assessment problems and whether using calculators improved their performance. Participants were sixth and seventh-grade students educated with either National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded or traditional mathematics curriculum materials. Students solved multiple choice and open-ended problems based on items from the State’s released previous assessments. A linear mixed model was conducted for each grade to analyze the factors impacting students’ self-reported calculator use. Chi Square tests were also performed on both grade’s data to determine the relationship between using a calculator and correctly solving problems. Results suggested only time as a main factor impacting calculator use and students who self-reported using a calculator were more likely to answer questions correctly. The results have implications for practice given the controversy over calculator use by students both with and without disabilities.     

‘What can I do to help?’: Postsecondary students with learning disabilities' perceptions of instructors' classroom accommodations

This qualitative research report adopts a critical pedagogy perspective to examine the provision of classroom accommodations for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Although instructors in the United States are bound to abide by disability rights laws, we also believe instructors can act in ways that allow students to feel comfortable in disclosing their disabilities and in requesting and accessing accommodations for these disabilities. We engaged the voices of 10 university students living with learning disabilities through a series of semi‐structured interviews. These students offered a variety of statements on the ways that their disabilities were accommodated or not by their instructors. We classified these perceptions into three kinds of accommodation perceived by university students with learning disabilities: non‐accommodation, formal accommodation and accommodation for all students. We discuss the implications that these types of accommodations have for pedagogy and offer recommendations for effective techniques for accommodating for all. We hope the voices of these students will serve to enhance communication between students with learning disabilities and their professors.     

The Effects of Read‐Aloud Accommodations for Students With and Without Disabilities: A Meta‐Analysis

Read‐aloud accommodations have been proposed as a way to help remove barriers faced by students with disabilities in reading comprehension. Many empirical studies have examined the effects of read‐aloud accommodations; however, the results are mixed. With a variance‐known hierarchical linear modeling approach, based on 114 effect sizes from 23 studies, a meta‐analysis was conducted to examine the effects of read‐aloud accommodations for students with and without disabilities. In general, both students with disabilities and students without disabilities benefited from the read‐aloud accommodations, and the accommodation effect size for students with disabilities was significantly larger than the effect size for students without disabilities. Further, this meta‐analysis reveals important factors that influence the effects of read‐aloud accommodations. For instance, the accommodation effect was significantly stronger when the subject area was reading than when the subject area was math. The effect of read‐aloud accommodations was also significantly stronger when the test was read by human proctors than when it was read by video/audio players or computers. Finally, the implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.     

Life adjustments of college freshmen with and without learning disabilities

This paper reports the results of a study comparing college freshmen with learning disabilities (LD) and freshmen with no learning disabilities (NLD). Four data collections over one academic year were completed on a total of 72 students (LDn=39; NLDn=33). Results of the study indicated differences between groups in their initial choice of living accommodations and in the changes made over the year: the overall trend was for students with LD to become more dependent on their families, while students with NLD were becoming less dependent on their families. With regard to academics, students with LD reported spending significantly less time in study and course preparation, as well as greater pessimism about success in coursework. Despite their pessimism, the actual GPA attainment of students with LD was similar to that of NLD peers. Whereas both groups initially predicted it would be easy to adjust to the academic and social nature of college, students with learning disabilities ultimately reported being dissatisfied with the social climate on campus. No differences were found between LD and NLD students regarding their motivation for attending college, or their plans for final degree attainment.     

Being an Elbow: A Phenomenological Autoethnography of Faculty-Student Collaboration for Accommodations

Hybrid and online courses and advances in assistive technologies make accommodating students with disabilities ever-changing, requiring innovation. This reality, coupled with students’ reluctance to disclose disabilities, points toward a need for replacing accommodations directed at those with disabilities with universal design whereby they become accessible to all—virtually eliminating the need for accommodations. In this paper, a master's of social work student (Chad) and his instructor (Regina) document their collaborations to revise a social work research course to meet his request for accommodations to make options more universally accessible. These revisions are done through reflections from both Chad and Regina from a phenomenological autoethnographic perspective—depicting their lived experiences.