Stability of psychometric questionnaires

In 1999, Wilson and Batterham proposed a new approach to assessing the test–retest stability of psychometric questionnaires. They recommended assessing the proportion of agreement – that is, the proportion of participants that record the same response to an item – using a test–retest design. They went on to use a bootstrapping technique to estimate the uncertainty of the proportion of agreement. The aims of this short communication are (1) to demonstrate that the sampling distribution of the proportion of agreement is well known (the binomial distribution), making the technique of ‘bootstrapping’ redundant, and (2) to suggest a much simpler, more sensitive method of assessing the stability of a psychometric questionnaire, based on the test–retest differences (within-individuals) for each item. Adopting methods similar to Wilson and Batterham, 97 sport students completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale on two occasions. Test–retest differences were calculated for each item. Our results show that the proportion of agreement ignores the nature of disagreement. Items 4 and 11 showed similar agreement (44.3% and 43.3% respectively), but 89 of the participants (91.8%) differed by just - 1 point when responding to item 4, indicating a relatively stable item. In contrast, only 78 of the participants (80.4%) recorded a difference within - 1 point when responding to item 11, suggesting quite contrasting stability for the two items. We recommend that, when assessing the stability of self-report questionnaires using a 5-point scale, most participants (90%) should record test–retest differences within a reference value of - 1.     

Stability of psychometric questionnaires

In 1999, Wilson and Batterham proposed a new approach to assessing the test-retest stability of psychometric questionnaires. They recommended assessing the proportion of agreement - that is, the proportion of participants that record the same response to an item - using a test-retest design. They went on to use a bootstrapping technique to estimate the uncertainty of the proportion of agreement. The aims of this short communication are (1) to demonstrate that the sampling distribution of the proportion of agreement is well known (the binomial distribution), making the technique of 'bootstrapping' redundant, and (2) to suggest a much simpler, more sensitive method of assessing the stability of a psychometric questionnaire, based on the test-retest differences (within-individuals) for each item. Adopting methods similar to Wilson and Batterham, 97 sport students completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale on two occasions. Test-retest differences were calculated for each item. Our results show that the proportion of agreement ignores the nature of disagreement. Items 4 and 11 showed similar agreement (44.3% and 43.3% respectively), but 89 of the participants (91.8%) differed by just +/-1 point when responding to item 4, indicating a relatively stable item. In contrast, only 78 of the participants (80.4%) recorded a difference within +/- 1 point when responding to item 11, suggesting quite contrasting stability for the two items. We recommend that, when assessing the stability of self-report questionnaires using a 5-point scale, most participants (90%) should record test-retest differences within a reference value of +/- 1.     

Team-referent attributions among sport performers

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russell's (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.     

Physical self and physical activity relationships in college women: does social physique anxiety moderate effects?

This research assessed whether social physique anxiety moderated the relationship between physical self-perceptions and the level of physical activity involvement in young women. Participants were 354 female students who completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), Physical Self-Perception Profile, Self-Administered 7-Day Physical Activity Recall (PAR), and Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ). Both physical activity measures were significantly related to the SPAS and all physical self-perceptions. Multiple regressions showed that only self-perceptions of conditioning significantly predicted PAR (R2 = .24) and LTEQ (R2 = .30). SPA did not add any unique variance in predicting activity, and no moderator effects were found for either PAR or LTEQ. Findings suggest that perception of physical conditioning is the dominant predictor of physical activity levels in young women, and social physique anxiety does not moderate this relationship.     

A Children's Form of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory: The CSAI-2C

Given the nonexistence of a multidimensional competitive state anxiety inventory for children, the 27-item Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2; Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990) was revised. The first phase of the process entailed administering a version (the CSAI-2C) with language modified for children ages 8 to 12 years (N = 119). Exploratory factor analysis supported a 3-dimensional competitive anxiety model (Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Confidence). The revised inventory includes 5 items per scale compared to the 9 items per scale on the CSAI-2. The second phase of test development for the CSAI-2C included adding items to assess Concentration Disruption (CD). Exploratory factor analytic procedures (N = 627) further supported the original 3 scales, but adequate measurement of the CD dimension was not evidenced. The final phase (N = 632), employing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), demonstrated the psychometric worthiness of a 3-dimensional model in assessing competitive state anxiety using the CSAI-2C.     

Team-Referent Attributions Among Sport Performers

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russell's (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.     

锻炼社会支持量表的编制与信效度检验

有规律的体育锻炼对人们的身心健康具有积极的促进作用,而社会支持是影响锻炼行为的重要相关因素。因此本研究的目的在于编制和检验锻炼社会支持量表。通过结合现有研究文献和质性研究,确立了初测量表,并通过两轮定量研究,应用探索性和验证性因子分析,信度分析以及校标效度检验对该量表进行了标准化的信效度检验。结果表明锻炼社会支持量表由4个因子构成,即情感性支持、信息性支持、工具性支持、同伴性支持,共24个条目。统计分析显示,量表具有良好的结构效度、内部一致性、重测信度和校标效度。锻炼社会支持量表符合我国文化背景,可以作为在中国人群中进行锻炼社会支持测量的工具。     

Are the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire Scales stable or transient?

Body image is an important concept when assessing mental health and, thus, a target for intervention work. The common approach to assess body image is via self-report and, consequently, it is important to assess stability and susceptibility of items to random change. Participants (N = 99, aged: 18–30 years) completed the 34-item Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS) twice, separated by two weeks. Stability was quantified by calculating the test–retest differences for each item, with a stable item showing 90% of respondents’ differences within a criterion of ≤±1. This method was used in preference to correlation, which is a test of association rather than agreement. Analyses identified 29 stable items. Five items were found to be unstable including the entire “Appearance Evaluation” scale. One particular unstable question, Q9 = “Most people would consider me good-looking”, revealed strong associations with both gender and weight status. Forty-four per cent of “overweight” respondents changed their minds by more than ±1 compared with only 10% of “normal-weight” participants, suggesting that being overweight is associated with uncertainty and instability. We suggest that future research is needed to investigate why such factors as being overweight appear to be linked to instability in self-report measures of body image.     

Development and validation of an energy-balance knowledge test for fourth- and fifth-grade students

A valid test measuring children’s energy-balance (EB) knowledge is lacking in research. This study developed and validated the energy-balance knowledge test (EBKT) for fourth and fifth grade students. The original EBKT contained 25 items but was reduced to 23 items based on pilot result and intensive expert panel discussion. De-identified data were collected from 468 fourth and fifth grade students enrolled in four schools to examine the psychometric properties of the EBKT items. The Rasch model analysis was conducted using the Winstep 3.65.0 software. Differential item functioning (DIF) analysis flagged 1 item (item #4) functioning differently between boys and girls, which was deleted. The final 22-item EBKT showed desirable model-data fit indices. The items had large variability ranging from ?3.58 logit (item #10, the easiest) to 1.70 logit (item #3, the hardest). The average person ability on the test was 0.28 logit (SD = .78). Additional analyses supported known-group difference validity of the EBKT scores in capturing gender- and grade-based ability differences. The test was overall valid but could be further improved by expanding test items to discern various ability levels. For lack of a better test, researchers and practitioners may use the EBKT to assess fourth- and fifth-grade students’ EB knowledge.     

Self-presentation in exercise: Changes over a 12-week cardiovascular programme for overweight and obese sedentary females

Abstract

Self-presentational concerns, shown to influence exercise-related cognitions and behaviours, are evaluated frequently in the absence of exercise or following a single bout of physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to examine longitudinally, the extent to which participating in a structured 12-week cardiovascular exercise intervention elicited changes in self-presentational efficacy expectancy (SPEE) and social physique anxiety (SPA). Participants were 80 sedentary women with overweight or obesity (mean body mass index 29.02 kg/m², SD=4.71) between the ages of 19 and 45 wanting to begin an exercise programme (mean age 33.4 years, SD=7.6). The Self-Presentational Efficacy Scale (SPES) and the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) were completed by each participant prior to commencing the study, and at the 6- and 12-week time points. For those who completed the programme, repeated measures ANOVAs indicated significant increases in SPEE between baseline and week 6 (P<0.001, η²=0.37), and week 6 to 12 (P<0.05, η²=0.10), while SPA decreased significantly between baseline and week 6 (P<0.01, η²=0.16). Bivariate correlation analyses revealed that length of participation in the study was positively related to SPEE and negatively related to SPA. Implications of focusing on these variables within a physical activity intervention are discussed with respect to exercise behaviour, programme development and adherence.     

Social physique anxiety and physical activity behaviour of male and female exercisers

Despite females consistently reporting greater social physique anxiety (SPA), previous literature has yet to demonstrate whether SPA gender differences are linked to the way males and females perform physical activity. This study investigated an association between SPA and physical activity frequency, history of exercise, and physical activity intensity. Participants were represented by currently active users (N?=?33 males; N?=?31 females) of an on-campus university-run gym and completed a background physical activity questionnaire and the nine-item Social Physique Anxiety Scale. Participants also performed an exercise session at a self-selected level of exertion, with the intensity of each session measured via heart rate monitor. SPA was not associated with physical activity frequency, history of exercise (length of gym membership), or intensity for male and female exercisers. With respect to male participants, females reported higher SPA and a preference for performing higher intensity physical activity. Females and males also indicated a preference for performing aerobic and anaerobic physical activity respectively. Our findings suggest the experience of SPA does not deter body-conscious individuals from the performance of regular physical activity. Findings also suggest the discrepancy in male and female SPA is not linked to differences in the way physical activity is performed.     

体育课动机气氛对维汉中学生目标定向、社会性体格焦虑的影响

选取中学的维吾尔族和汉族教学班,进行两种不同的动机气氛的教学,考察动机气氛对目标定向和社会性体格焦虑的影响.以课堂气氛为自变量、Ames的TARGET教学模式为指导,在课堂中营造学习气氛和成绩气氛.在选取的大、中学维汉10个教学班进行了为期8周的2种课堂气氛的教学实验,得出以下结论,(1)动机气氛可以改变学生的目标定向、社会性体格焦虑.学习气氛教学可以提高学生的任务定向及降低社会体格焦虑;成绩气氛教学则提高学生的自我定向和社会性体格焦虑.(2)在动机气氛的主效应上,对目标定向、社会体格焦虑的影响在年级与民族上表现出一致性.     

Cognitive Interviewing: A Qualitative Tool for Improving Questionnaires in Sport Science

This study sought to determine whether body fat percentage estimates using an inexpensive bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) device (Tanita TBF-521, Tanita Corp, of America, Arlington Heights, IL) could be freely substituted for those obtained utilizing skinfolds (method equivalence). Data were analyzed from measurements on 38 children age 6 to 12 years. Random effect intraclass correlation (r = .930; 95% confidence interval [CI] = .87 to .96), fixed effect intraclass correlation (r = .932; 95% CI = .87 to .96), and least-products regression supported the equivalence of the 2 methods. The technical error between the 2 methods (3.7; coefficient of variation = 12.2%) was small and also supported the equivalence of the two methods. The ability of the BIA device to categorize into normal and obese categories when compared to the skinfold technique was also impressive (κ = .95; 95% CI = .73 to .99). However, the results of the limits of agreement analysis showed that the approximate 95% CI for the differences between methods was wide (-9.1 to 11.4).     

Assessing College Student-Athletes' Life Stress: Initial Measurement Development and Validation

College student-athletes have unique life stress that warrants close attention. The purpose of this study was to develop a reliable and valid measurement assessing college student-athletes' life stress. In Study 1, a focus group discussion and Delphi method produced a questionnaire draft, termed the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale. In Study 2 and Study 3, the properties of the items and the underlying structure of the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale were confirmed through item analysis, factor analysis, and reliability examination. A 24-item College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale with eight factors was established. In addition, examining concurrent and discriminant validity via correlations among College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale, positive state of mind, and burnout experiences provided further evidences of criterion validity. Across these phases, results showed adequate factorial structure, criterion validity, and reliability of the College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale. The investigators suggest that College Student-Athletes' Life Stress Scale could be used as a tool for researchers and practitioners to assess college student-athletes' life stress.     

A Polytomous Item Response Theory Analysis of Social Physique Anxiety Scale

The present study investigated the social physique anxiety scale’s factor structure and item properties using confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory. An additional aim was to identify differences in response patterns between groups (gender). A large sample of high school students aged 11–15 years (N = 1,529) consisting of n = 562 males and n = 967 females. Confirmatory factor analysis and polytomous item response theory examined the structure of the scale. Items shown to be invariant across were identified using multidimensional differential item functioning methods. Graded response model results showed that item parameters were high with low associated standard errors. Multidimensional differential item functioning results revealed six items are biased in favor of either men (33%) or women (17%). The primary source of differential item functioning related to the item composition, and internal (male) or external (female) frames of reference.     

《体育教育专业大学生职业认同量表》的编制及信效度检验

通过对60名体育教育专业大学生进行有关职业认同的开放式问卷和访谈,根据问卷调查和访谈结果,在征求了2名大学教授、2名心理学专业教师建议的基础上,建立了《体育教育专业大学生职业认同》的初始量表。运用初始量表对132名在校体育教育专业学生进行问卷调查,根据调查结果对初始量表的每一个条目进行项目分析,删除了项目效度值不显著的题目后,对量表进行进一步的探索性因素分析,共抽取了4个因素(特征值分别为:4.375,2.108,1.534,1.086,方差贡献率:70.0%),删除了14个因素负荷值<0.4的题项。通过验证性因素分析,对原有题目进行了调整,最终得到了由13个题项构成的《体育教育专业大学生职业认同量表》。同时,对量表的信度和效度进行了检验。结果表明,该量表具有良好的信、效度。     

A novel approach to standardizing landing and balancing tasks in netball using single-leg horizontal jumps

This study aimed to establish the reliability of a novel netball task using a single-leg horizontal jump (SLHJ). Twenty-five females 18–39 years performed SLHJs for maximal displacement and ground-reaction forces. Participants completed two trials for each leg on two occasions separated by 6 weeks of pre-season netball training. Paired sample t tests highlighted no significant differences within trials for either limb. Significant (p ≤ .05) changes are reported for displacement, and dominant and nondominant X and Y forces, after 6-week netball training. SLHJ displacement showed excellent within-session reliability at baseline for dominant (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC(2,1)) = 0.922, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.826–0.966) and nondominant (ICC(2,1) = 0.925; 95% CI 0.832–0.967) landings. At 6 weeks, within-session reliability remained excellent for dominant (ICC(2,1) = 0.967, 95% CI 0.926–0.985) and nondominant ICC 0.968 (95% CI 0.929–0.986) landings. The reliability of the single-leg horizontal jump task for netball remained strong after 6 weeks of netball training.     

Influence of training and match intensity on injuries in rugby league

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of perceived intensity, duration and load of matches and training on the incidence of injury in rugby league players. The incidence of injury was prospectively studied in 79 semi-professional rugby league players during the 2001 season. All injuries sustained during matches and training sessions were recorded. Training sessions were conducted from December to September, with matches played from February to September. The intensity of individual training sessions and matches was estimated using a modified rating of perceived exertion scale. Training load was calculated by multiplying the training intensity by the duration of the training session. The match load was calculated by multiplying the match intensity by the time each player participated in the match. Training load increased from December (278.3 [95% confidence interval, CI 262.2 to 294.5] units) to February (385.5 [95% CI 362.4 to 408.5] units), followed by a decline until September (98.4 [95% CI 76.5 to 120.4] units). Match load increased from February (204.0 [95% CI 186.2 to 221.8] units) to September (356.8 [95% CI 302.5 to 411.1] units). More training injuries were sustained in the first half of the season (first vs second: 69.2% vs 30.8%, P < 0.001), whereas match injuries occurred more frequently in the latter stages of the season (53.6% vs 46.4%, P < 0.001). A significant relationship (P < 0.05) was observed between changes in training injury incidence and changes in training intensity (r = 0.83), training duration (r = 0.79) and training load (r = 0.86). In addition, changes in the incidence of match injuries were significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with changes in match intensity (r = 0.74), match duration (r = 0.86) and match load (r = 0.86). These findings suggest that as the intensity, duration and load of rugby league training sessions and matches is increased, the incidence of injury is also increased.     

Feasibility for the Use of a Standardized Fitness Testing Protocol Among Australian Fitness Industry Professionals

Purpose: There is currently no standardized testing protocol for assessing clients’ fitness/health within the Australian fitness industry. This study examined the perceptions of the feasibility of using a standardized testing protocol among Australian fitness industry professionals. Method: In 2014, 1,206 registered fitness industry professionals (aged 17–69 years) completed an online survey. Perceived feasibility for using a standardized testing protocol was assessed based on responses to 6 items. Respondents were classified as having a high level of perceived feasibility if they reported all 6 items to be “definitely feasible.” A multivariate logistic regression analysis, adjusting for demographic and fitness industry-related factors (e.g., qualification/years of experience), assessed the likelihood of having a high level of perceived feasibility. Results: Overall, 25.5% (95% CI [23.1%, 28.0%]) of the sample perceived the use of a standardized testing protocol as highly feasible. Items ranked most often as “definitely feasible” were “undertaking training to use the protocol” (55%) and “conducting follow-up testing every 6 to 12 weeks” (52%). After adjustment for the effect of confounding factors, casually employed professionals (OR = 0.63; 95% CI [0.45, 0.90]) and group instructors (OR = 0.58; 95% CI [0.41, 0.82]) were less likely to perceive standardized testing protocols as highly feasible. Conclusions: Among a large sample of Australian fitness industry professionals, slightly more than a quarter perceived using a standardized testing protocol to be highly feasible. Group instructors and casual employees perceived lower feasibility. Further research should determine the barriers to implementing a standardized testing protocol across the fitness industry.