The External Dimension of the Bologna Process: Higher Education in South East Europe and the European Higher Education Area in a Global World Reforming the Universities of South East Europe in|sq| View of the Bologna Process

Although the Bologna Process expresses the conviction that the higher education systems of the countries signatory to the Bologna Declaration (1999) should become increasingly comparable and compatible, it leaves higher education as a national responsibility and protects and encourages cultural and educational diversity. Given this statement of principle, the author discusses the special problems involved in adapting the higher education systems of South East Europe to the Bologna Process, citing his own country, Slovenia, as an example. He examines the issues of diversity versus integration, the modernization of curricula, the development of a proper balance between institutional autonomy and the national co-ordination of higher edu cation, the links between university and non-university higher education, and the preparation, in higher education institutions, of teachers for primary and secondary school education.     

欧洲博士教育的博洛尼亚进程：一体化与国际化

一体化和国际化是推动欧洲博士教育博洛尼亚进程的两大动力。欧洲博士教育以欧洲高教区和欧洲研究区为连接纽带,通过组织结构、职业规划、协作机制、国际化策略、基金资助以及法律法规等方面的一系列改革推动欧洲博洛尼亚进程向知识社会转型,是迈向高等教育国际化、培养国际化研究人才以及发展创新经济的关键。     

Aspired Convergence,Cherished Diversity: Dealing with the contradictions of Bologna

This article addresses the inherent tension in the Bologna process between the aim of convergence and the will to maintain the diversity of national higher education (HE) systems, as well as the decentralised and autonomous nature of national policy formulation on Bologna reforms. Starting from an analytical discussion of the concepts of convergence versus diversity in the Bologna documents, it assesses empirically the degree of convergence achieved so far between the HE systems of Germany, the Netherlands, France, and England. The result is that convergence in several dimensions was only modest between 1998 and 2004. The article concludes by reflecting upon this finding and discusses the implications. The policy proposals put forward are (1) to acknowledge and stress the merits of the Bologna process other than convergence, (2) to engage in a second round of reforms more clearly targeted at convergence, and (3) to address mobility and recognition issues independent from convergence of degree structures.     

From Voluntary Participation to Monitored Coordination: why European countries feel increasingly bound by their commitment to the Bologna Process

Beginning in the year 2000, higher education policies all over Europe were transformed by the launching and evolution of the Bologna Process, otherwise known as the process of creating a European Higher Education Area (EHEA). Initially, this process was flexible and informal, which makes the rapidity and scope of the changes it brought about surprising: why did European governments commit themselves to achieving the Bologna Objectives, and why so quickly, when there was no legal obligation to do so? I will argue the following: to understand the development of such a sense of obligation, we must take into account the special interests at stake when Bologna objectives are implemented at a national level. We must also consider the legitimacy lent to the process by the Bologna ideals of a knowledge-based economy and society. These elements are present in other studies on this topic. However, and this is rarely considered, we also have to take into account the specific dynamics of the process of creating an institutional coordination and monitoring mechanism. This mechanism has a formal institutional structure and tools for evaluation and monitoring. Our analysis of the way in which it was developed and formalised enriches previous research on the topic and also sheds light on how a flexible European process of voluntary participation became a monitored system of coordinated national higher education policies.     

Selective acquiescence,creative commitment and strategic conformity: situated national policy responses to Bologna

The non-binding nature of the Bologna Declaration and loose policy-making and implementation through the open method of coordination (OMC) have led to varied national responses to the Bologna Process. The OMC has allowed countries room for manoeuvre to interpret Bologna policy and attach different degrees of importance to it. Looking at the interplay between agency and structure in policy implementation, this article aims to illustrate the localised character of Bologna policy implementation driven by national priorities and political agendas, a reflection of the ‘policy as text’ metaphor (Ball, 1994). The analysis is driven by an agentic understanding of the policy process, highlighting ‘actors’ perceptions, perspectives, preferences, actions and interactions' (Trowler, 2002). Three different country reactions are examined — England, Portugal and Denmark, described as selective acquiescence, creative commitment and strategic conformity to capture the essence of the cases in question. In analysing the countries' responses, the article considers national readings of Bologna, motivations behind responses to the Process, as well as its reception and implementation at national level.     

俄罗斯的博洛尼亚进程:困境及走势

俄罗斯加入博洛尼亚进程既是提升其国家竞争力的需要,也是其参与世界教育服务市场竞争的需要。但是,目前它面临着对"博洛尼亚化"的倡导与反对并存、被认为是一场"没有激情的运动"等困境。尽管如此,俄罗斯的博洛尼亚进程仍有"软着陆"的趋势。     

Aspired Convergence,Cherished Diversity: Dealing with the contradictions of Bologna

This article addresses the inherent tension in the Bologna process between the aim of convergence and the will to maintain the diversity of national higher education (HE) systems, as well as the decentralised and autonomous nature of national policy formulation on Bologna reforms. Starting from an analytical discussion of the concepts of convergence versus diversity in the Bologna documents, it assesses empirically the degree of convergence achieved so far between the HE systems of Germany, the Netherlands, France, and England. The result is that convergence in several dimensions was only modest between 1998 and 2004. The article concludes by reflecting upon this finding and discusses the implications. The policy proposals put forward are (1) to acknowledge and stress the merits of the Bologna process other than convergence, (2) to engage in a second round of reforms more clearly targeted at convergence, and (3) to address mobility and recognition issues independent from convergence of degree structures.

     

波洛尼亚进程框架下俄罗斯高等教育系统的改革

波洛尼亚进程是欧洲高等教育一体化进程的重要组成部分,俄罗斯于2003年签署了<波洛尼亚宣言>.本文主要介绍了俄罗斯在该进程框架下所采取的一系列改革措施.     

波伦亚进程下的挪威高等教育质量保障体制改革

欧洲波伦亚进程标志着欧洲高等教育一体化朝纵深方向发展,挪威作为该进程的积极参与国之一,近年来对本国高等教育体制进行了大刀阔斧的改革,特别是高等教育质量保障体制方面的改革更是走在了许多欧洲国家前列。本文简要论述了波伦亚进程的发展情况,并结合该进程的具体要求考察近年来挪威高等教育质量保障体制改革的主要措施及其特点,以期对我国高等教育质量保障体系的完善有所借鉴。     

An anatomy of authority: the Bologna and ASEM education secretariats as policy actors and region builders

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the sources of authority behind the Bologna and ASEM secretariats’ technocratic appearance and administrative routines, and argues that they are transnational policy actors in their own right. By drawing on principal-agent theory and the concept of ‘authority’, it offers an alternative framework for understanding the various forms of authority. The case studies generate three important insights. First, it shows how the secretariats derive their authority from the tasks delegated by states, the moral values and social purpose they uphold, and the expertise they possess. Second, it compares how the different governance structures of the Bologna and ASEM education processes impact on the secretariats’ authority. Third, it highlights how the secretariats exercise their respective authorities and exert their discernible influence at different stages of higher education policy-making and region-building processes.     

Systemic adaptation to a changing environment: Towards a next generation of quality assurance models

Quality assessment has been part of thefeedback mechanisms of European highereducation systems since around 1980. Due tointernal dynamics, `erosion' of theeffectiveness of first-generation qualityassessment systems has led to loss ofcredibility (legitimacy) of these systems inthe late 1990s. External dynamics alsonecessitate designing a next generation ofquality assurance systems. They include notablya loss of transparency (hence, legitimacy) ofthe European higher education system throughincreased internationalisation (most notablythrough the Bologna process) which puts new,increased demands on institutional arrangementsfor quality assurance.In this paper, we first intend to schematisethe developments of quality assurance in highereducation by introducing a phase model of theeffects of internal and external dynamics.Next, we will analyse this phase model from theperspective of argumentative policy inquiry.Finally, we will contrast policy developmentsin higher education with one other example,viz. environmental policy in the Netherlands.The conclusions of this comparison, as well asthe new challenges set for quality assurance inhigher education by the Bologna process, arethe subject matter for the final section of ourpaper.     

The open method of coordination and the implementation of the Bologna process

In this paper the authors argue that the use of the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) in the implementation of the Bologna process presents coordination problems that do not allow for the full coherence of the results. As the process is quite complex, involving three different levels (European, national and local) and as the final actors in the implementation process higher education institutions (HEIs) have considerable degree of autonomy, assuming that the implementation of Bologna is a top–down linear policy implementation process does not account for the developments taking place, which produce implementation difficulties at several different levels. Constraints resulting from economic concerns at European and national levels may be an obstacle for the Bologna’s contribution to a social Europe.     

Training of specialists and the labour market in Russia

Abstract

In this paper the authors argue that the use of the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) in the implementation of the Bologna process presents coordination problems that do not allow for the full coherence of the results. As the process is quite complex, involving three different levels (European, national and local) and as the final actors in the implementation process higher education institutions (HEIs) have considerable degree of autonomy, assuming that the implementation of Bologna is a top‐down linear policy implementation process does not account for the developments taking place, which produce implementation difficulties at several different levels. Constraints resulting from economic concerns at European and national levels may be an obstacle for the Bologna's contribution to a social Europe.     

Bologna 2010. The Moment of Truth?

Government policies are central factors shaping the environment of higher education institutions. European governments have included in their higher education political strategies the principal goal of implementing the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). The perceptions that key actors of higher education institutions (HEIs) have about political developments are important as they may influence the achievement of government policy. The Bologna Process is at the heart of policy coordination, the instrument selected at European and national levels to establish EHEA. This article seeks to discuss empirically the views of institutional actors about the Bologna Process, taking into consideration the achievement of EHEA. The discussion is based on the analysis of the EHEA implementation in seven HEIs located in four higher education systems — Germany, Italy, Norway and Portugal. This paper draws on the theoretic-methodological approach of the policy cycle to analyse the perceptions of HEIs' constituencies about Bologna.     

“博洛尼亚进程”研究对广西高校校际交流的启示

"博洛尼亚进程"在欧洲已经进入实施的第二个十年,之前的十年成果丰硕,给我国高等教育改革提供了宝贵的经验。文章通过研究"博洛尼亚进程",科学借鉴"博洛尼亚进程"成功实践的经验,结合广西高校开展校际交流的现状,深入分析校际交流过程中面临的突出问题,并提出相应的应对策略,为构建体系开放、机制灵活、渠道广泛的人才培养模式,促进广西高校校际交流的共同开展提供积极参考。     

Higher Education as a Public Good and a Public Responsibility

The ministers responsible for the Bologna Process have supported the idea that higher education is a public good and a public responsibility. The public authorities must have exclusive responsibility for the framework of higher education, including the degree structure, the institutional framework, and the framework for quality assurance. The public authorities should have financial responsibility for higher education and should bear the main responsibility for ensuring equal opportunities, including responsibility for access policies and student finance. Most importantly, public responsibility must remain a pillar of European higher education policies when facing the global marketplace.     

Assessment revisited: a review of research in Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education

A review of articles published in Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, over the last eight years (2006–2013) on assessment in higher education, since the introduction of the Bologna process, is the subject of the paper. The first part discusses the key issue of assessment in higher education and the method used for selecting articles. The second part presents results according to the main emerging themes arising from data analysis: assessment methods, modes of assessment and assessment related to a given teaching and learning method. The paper concludes that the foci of the studies are aligned with assessment practices other than the written test, in accordance with a learner-oriented perspective. Although the implementation of the Bologna process has had different kinds of impact in different European countries, the review shows that the use and effects of a diversity of assessment methods in higher education have been investigated, particularly those pointing to the so-called alternative methods. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

解读“博洛尼亚进程”

＂博洛尼亚进程＂目的在于通过资源整合在欧洲实现高教一体化,这个进程始于由29个国家签署的《博洛尼亚协议》。从经济学的视角来看,＂博洛尼亚进程＂是顺应经济全球化的一项举措。学位体系变革是＂进程＂中最为重要的一项改革,尽管对这个进程存有不少质疑,但欧洲各国仍积极推进,因为＂博洛尼亚进程＂已经不是单纯的教育问题。     

博洛尼亚进程中的芬兰高等教育政策调整

作为博洛尼亚进程的签约国之一,北欧的芬兰教育部积极回应改革.本文详细介绍了芬兰的改革措施及成效,分析了芬兰高等教育在欧洲一体化进程改革的成功经验和存在的争论.     

Academics’ and employers’ perceptions about responsibilities for employability and their initiatives towards its development

This paper reports the results of preliminary research into how Portuguese academics and employers perceive the responsibility of different higher education stakeholders—students, teaching staff, higher education institutions, employers, and policy-makers—for developing graduate employability. The study was conducted 8 years after the implementation of the Bologna Process, the reform that placed employability firmly on the agenda of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Portugal. This paper aims to assess the extent to which higher education is held responsible for developing employability, and to characterize the activities undertaken by the two actors to achieve that end. In particular, with respect to academics, we characterize curricular and other changes to study programmes, and, with respect to employers, their participation in activities undertaken by HEIs meant to ease the transition of students to the labour market. The data comes from a survey responded to by 684 Portuguese academics and 64 employers. Academics and employers alike were found to attribute high responsibility for developing employability to higher education, suggesting that the political message of the Bologna Process regarding the relation between higher education and the labour market has been assimilated. However, the activities reported by both types of respondents indicate only an average commitment to developing employability. Here, the low participation of employers in internal institutional activities is noteworthy, suggesting that the recognition of employers as stakeholders in higher education, as advocated by policy-makers, has yet to happen in Portugal.