Cognitive Transformations and Extended Expertise

Abstract

Expertise is extended by becoming immersed in cultural practices. We look at an example of mathematical expertise in which immersion in cognitive practices results in the transformation of expert performance.     

Expertise in Counseling Psychology: A Concept in Search of Support

Despite the documented efficacy of counseling, evidence supporting a claim of expertise among counseling practitioners is found to be lacking. A review of selected literature finds that counselors frequently hold inacurate or biased cognitive schemata concerning clients and engage in faulty reasoning regarding clients' concerns—producing clinical judgments that appear no better than those of less experienced individuals (novices). The concept of expertise in counseling may be justified if clinical judgment is viewed as an ill-structured problem and the criterion for judging expertise is changed from enhanced clinical accuracy to one of enhanced clinical certainty.     

认知发展研究的新趋势与贡献

对近年来认知发展的研究趋势做了分析，指出受认知科学和新皮亚杰主义的影响，认知发展研究呈现出较为综合的研究趋向。认为注重创立理论和概念体系对于认知发展的研究有重大的意义。     

Characterizing Expert Psychologist Behavior: Implications from Selected Expertise Literature

This article selectively reviews literature on the development of expertise in counseling and on assessment tasks of professional psychologists. Relevant theories of the development of expertise are reviewed, as well as selected research on medical diagnostic expertise. Whereas counselor development models have become widely used conceptual tools, similar theories from the expertise literature have been relatively neglected despite their promise. Design features and research issues from investigations of medical diagnostic expertise, including the use of forward and backward reasoning processes, might help operationalize expertise in professional psychology.     

认知科学方法论:走向认知语境化

认知科学方法论的发展经历了三个发展阶段 :认知内在主义、认知外在主义和认知语境主义。认知内在主义方法包括还原主义、功能主义、内省主义和认知主义 ;认知外在主义方法包括行为主义和文化主义 ;认知语境主义方法包括联结主义、双透视主义和综合式唯物主义。     

Cognitive Tools in a Clinical Encounter in Medicine: Supporting Empathy and Expertise in Distributed Systems

This paper examines how, in use, culturally-provided tools can be said to embody knowledge and distribute thinking. It focuses on the routine procedures used by medical professionals to investigate patient complaints and examines explicit and implicit contributions of these conventional procedures to distributed thinking in clinical encounters in medicine. After characterizing these tools, examples of how the tools guide and constrain medical problem solving are provided. The tools support the development and exercise of the routines characteristic of medical expertise, while at the same time preserving the nonroutine, controlled deliberation necessary for sound and ethical medical care. The paper concludes with ways in which the tools' role in thinking can be promoted through medical education, particularly during students' early clinical exposure: (a) Organizing learning experiences that expose the tools' meanings; (b) exploiting the benefits of small group work to promote collaborative and individual competencies in distributed systems; and (c) explicitly utilizing the products of thinking with these tools to further the goals shared by participants in clinical encounters.     

Knowledge Integration in Science Learning: Tracking Students' Knowledge Development and Skill Acquisition with Cognitive Diagnosis Models

In scientific literacy, knowledge integration (KI) is a scaffolding-based theory to assist students' scientific inquiry learning. To drive students to be self-directed, many courses have been developed based on KI framework. However, few efforts have been made to evaluate the outcome of students' learning under KI instruction. Moreover, finer-grained information has been pursued to better understand students' learning and how it progresses over time. In this article, a normative procedure of building and choosing cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs) and attribute hierarchies was formulated under KI theory. We examined the utility of CDMs for evaluating students' knowledge status in KI learning. The results of the data analysis confirmed an intuitive assumption of the hierarchical structure of KI components. Furthermore, analysis of pre- and posttests using a higher-order, hidden Markov model tracked students' skill acquisition while integrating knowledge. Results showed that students make significant progress after using the web-based inquiry science environment (WISE) platform.     

Psychological Expertise and the Role of Individual Differences: An Exploration of Issues

Cognitive scientists have suggested that individual differences are relatively unimportant in predicting who will become an expert in any particular domain. This stance is at variance with the admissions screening practices of graduate programs in professional psychology as well as with counseling psychology's individual differences tradition. The purpose of this article was to consider some of the issues involved on both sides of this apparent contradiction, with particular emphasis on expertise in professional psychology. I first examine some of the possible operational definitions of expertise in this domain. I then consider salient literature and conclude that there almost certainly are threshold levels of intellectual and interpersonal skills that trainees in professional psychology should have. Beyond these levels, though, it may be that motivation and persistence are the most important variables in predicting the eventual attainment of expertise in professional psychology.     

Designing Education for Professional Expertise Development

How to facilitate learning by novices (students) on their road to expertise has attracted the attention of a vast number of researchers in cognitive and educational psychology as well in the field of learning and instruction. Although many studies have investigated the phenomenon of expertise development, the implications of the findings for instruction are scattered throughout the literature. This article reports the results of a systematic literature review of 37 studies on expertise development. Using Tynjälä's Integrative Pedagogy Model as an organising framework, the implications for educational practice described in these studies are presented as 10 instructional principles. This study takes a step towards translating expertise development research into guidelines for instruction. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Searching for Expertise in Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Professional Psychology

The expertise literature within cognitive science has provided a rich series of ideas which can be used to improve applied practice. The authors of the articles in this special issue have taken many of these ideas and made useful elaborations and extensions. In reaction to the articles, we suggest five blocks to a full utilization of the expertise literature and other constructs in practitioner development. These blocks are: (a) the need to go beyond the cognitive realm to the working alliance for the fundamental construct in the domain; (b) the need to realize that the novice-to-expert path takes a long time—perhaps 15 years—to travel; (c) the inappropriate use of a short experience differential in comparative studies of novices and experts; (d) the importance of reflection for development; and (e) the need for professors, in order to be experts, to also be practitioners in the domain.     

Conceptualizing and Exemplifying Science Teachers' Assessment Expertise

Although research in science education has led to new assessment forms and functions, the reality is that little work has been done to unpack and capture what it means for a teacher to develop expertise at assessing science. The purpose of this paper is two-fold. First, I suggest a conceptualization of assessment expertise that is organized around three dimensions: (a) designing aligned and theoretically cohesive assessment (Design), (b) using assessment to support students' science learning (Use), and (c) equitably assessing language minorities (Equity). The second purpose is to suggest and exemplify various levels of teaching expertise across the three conceptual dimensions using written assessment plans gathered from a study on secondary science pre-service teachers' assessment growth. The contribution of this paper lies in its further conceptual development of assessment expertise, instantiated in a rubric, which can spark discussion about how to capture the range of assessment practices that might be found in science classrooms as well as move toward a potential learning progression of assessment expertise.     

高校教师践行“以德为行，以学为上”的路径分析

"以德为行,以学为上"的教育理念,是广东技术师范学院党委书记邝邦洪教授总结自己从事几十年教育的经验提出来的。这一理念对于21世纪大学生的成长成才有重要的指导作用,对高校教师实现教书育人的人生价值有积极的现实意义。高校教师应从加强认识、树立终身学习的观念以及建立健全机制等方面努力践行"以德为行,以学为上"的理念。     

学习进阶:关注学生认知发展和生活经验

2012年,美国正式发布了《K-12科学教育框架:实践、通用概念及核心概念》最终版。作为全美新一代科学教育标准的指导性文件,该框架使用了学习进阶连贯地表征出学生在各学段应达成的学习目标。学习进阶的提出与定义、组成要素、理论基础及其构建与呈现方式决定了其对学生认知发展和已有生活经验的关注,使其成为教育研究与教学紧密结合的桥梁,也是设计与实现少而精、连贯一致的中小学科学课程的必然需求。当前,国际科学教育领域已由学习进阶的研究与设计阶段迈向应用与实践层面,而我国对学习进阶的认识与研究仍处于起步阶段,亟须在中小学科学教育领域展开对学习进阶的深入研究。     

Reexamining the Role of Cognitive Conflict in Science Concept Learning

In this study, we defined and quantified the degree of cognitive conflict induced by a discrepant event from a cognitive perspective. Based on the scheme developed, we investigated the relationship between cognitive conflict and conceptual change, and the influences of students' cognitive characteristics on conflict in learning the concept of density. Subjects were 171 seventh-grade girls from two city middle schools in Korea. Tests regarding logical thinking ability, field dependence/independence, and meaningful learning approach were administered. A preconception test and a test of responses to a discrepant event were also administered. Computer-assisted instruction was then provided to students as a conceptual change intervention. A conception test was administered as a posttest. In analysing students' responses to the discrepant event, seven types of responses were identified: Rejection, reinterpretation, exclusion, uncertainty, peripheral belief change, belief decrease, and belief change. These types were then ordered into four levels. The results indicated that there existed a significant correlation between cognitive conflict and conceptual change. t-test results revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the degree of cognitive conflict by the levels of students' logical thinking ability and field dependence/independence. Meaningful learning approach, however, was found to have no statistically significant effect on cognitive conflict. Educational implications are discussed.     

新手到专家:职业专长发展的必由之路

专家——新手这一研究思路最初应用于象棋、物理、医学等职业专长领域，以后逐渐应用于学、体育、音乐等领域。在不同的职业领域存在不同的专长。职业专长的发展是一个长期学习和实践的过程。新手与专家的职业专长发展存在差异这些差异的影响因素主要在动机、实践训练、知觉、知识经验等方面。找到这些影响因素，对于职业指导与职业培训具有重要的意义。     

主观性研究的两种取向——共性·差异·互补性

在当代认知—功能语言学中,主观性已成为一个不可或缺的概念,围绕这一概念发展出了两大流派：以Langacker为代表的共时取向及以Traugott为代表的历时取向。通过深入透视两者的共性与分歧,以明确各自的优缺利弊,在此基础上探索两者在研究层面及研究视角上的互补性,最后提出主观化的多重维度。     

超常儿童的认知发展及其教育策略

超常儿童是世界各国教育界广泛注意的一个主题,特别是认知特点的研究更为大家所关心。当前,对超常儿童的认知发展研究主要集中于认知加工速度、知识基础、元认知和问题解决策略上。现在,超常教育领域也有许多要研究解决的问题,需要心理学界与教育界的通力合作。     

双语对儿童认知发展的影响

双语对认知发展的影响一直是心理学家较为关注的问题。国外的一些研究发现双语对认知发展有积极的影响,另一些研究却没有发现这种优势。这些研究存在取样偏差和对双语定义方面的问题,以后的研究应该严密控制这些变量以揭示双语对认知发展的真正影响。     

抑制机制发展:认知发展研究的新视野

过去的认知和认知发展研究偏重于对激活过程的考察，随着当前认知科学和神经科学的进一步发展，从新的角度在更高的层次重新触发了人们对认知抑制及其发展机制的兴趣，使之成为国际认知和认知发展领域正在迅速崛起的一个重要课题。从无意向抑制和有意抑制两个方面的介绍可了解认知和认知发展领域近期关于抑制及其发展研究的状况和进展。