Monitoring online communication: can the development of convergence and social presence indicate an interactive learning environment?

More units of study are being offered flexibly, using distance education and online facilities, as a consequence of recent educational developments in higher education, with learner expectations of being able to study when they like and where they like, as well as increasing class enrolments and more students studying remotely or part‐time. However, the quality of the learning experience and the efficacy of placing learning activities that require student interaction and discourse in an online environment have been questioned. The concerns raised by educators regarding placing learning activities online are often about the types of learning environments that are being created and the tools available to support student communication in a virtual learning environment. Asynchronous computer‐mediated communication is one means of allowing students to communicate independently of time and place, and to communicate questions, opinions and queries when transferring interactive learning activities to an online environment. The use of threaded, online discussions that allow asynchronous communication has been criticised for not producing the perceived benefits for learners and educators. This paper assesses the use of asynchronous computer‐mediated communication and the degree of convergence and level of social presence as indicators of developing highly responsive and interactive learning environments in the context of an inquiry‐based learning activity, using a case study approach with problem solving and self‐directed research.     

Interaction Patterns of Mixed Sex Groups in Educational Computer Conferences. Part I-Empirical Findings

ABSTRACT This article considers the patterns of interaction in small, mixed sex groups of postgraduate students working in computer conference environments. Additionally, the views of participants concerning gender issues in these groups are examined. The research reported here differs from previous work in this area in several ways: the medium of communication is asynchronous computer conferences rather than face-to-face; the study is naturalistic rather than experimental; and it involves the study of groups that met over extended periods of time. The findings suggest that this new medium of group work offers new opportunities for female members of mixed sex groups, especially in terms of their ability to take turns, speak for similar lengths of time to those of male members, and direct the conversations. Generally, females appear to be at less of a disadvantage in this medium than in face-to-face meetings. It would seem that this medium offers the potential for greater equality of participation for females in mixed sex learning groups.     

The Assessment of Student Teachers’ Academic and Professional Knowledge in School‐Based Teacher Education

The aim of this study was to scrutinize the assessment of teacher knowledge in a school‐based course at one Swedish pre‐service teacher education program. In a general education school‐based course, teacher educators visited the student teachers at their school placements and met them and their school mentors in student‐teaching conferences to assess their teacher knowledge. The findings primarily show that the assessment procedures are influenced by teacher educators’ organization of the school visits and conferences. Secondly, the organization of the school visits and conferences influences who the potential and actual assessors at the conferences can be and are. Thirdly, the assessed student teacher knowledge at the conferences is described as procedural knowledge in a knowledge‐in‐practice perspective, almost exclusively in the area of relational, emotional, and caring learning objectives and aspects of teaching activities. Fourthly, the findings show that propositional knowledge in a knowledge‐for‐practice perspective is hardly mentioned or assessed.     

Effects of a Theory-Based Feedback and Consultation Process on Instruction and Learning in College Classrooms

This study examined how midterm student ratings feedback provided to teaching assistants via a theory-based ratings instrument, combined with consultation on instructional practices, would affect teaching practices, ratings of teaching effectiveness, and student learning and motivation. The student ratings instrument that was employed focused on a series of instructional activities derived from Gagné's theory of instruction and Reiser and Dick's instructional model. Thirty-seven teaching assistants in undergraduate computer science and chemistry courses were randomly assigned to either a feedback + consultation group or a no-feedback group. Results of this study indicated that the feedback and consultation process had a significant impact on instructional practices and ratings of teaching effectiveness. Student learning and student motivation were positively correlated with the frequency with which the various instructional activities examined in this study were utilized. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

International Collaborations in Teacher Education: a constructivist approach to using electronic mail for communication in partnership with schools

ABSTRACT

This article deals with collaborative projects carried out in co‐operation with teacher‐training/Higher Education institutions and schools around the world. Partners for these links included the University of Helsinki (Finland), City College (New York, USA), the Academy of Sciences (Moscow, Russia) and the University of Oldenburg (Germany). A rationale is offered for the use of telecommunications, especially electronic mail, in co‐operative projects of this kind and the potential is explored for further networks with research and development aspects. The article draws upon previous presentations and discussions at conferences in Germany, Australia, USA and the United Kingdom. Recent developments concerning links between initial teacher education and schools in Britain are examined briefly and suggestions offered for ways in which electronic mail can facilitate such links.     

Learning residential electrical wiring through computer simulation: The impact of computer‐based learning environments on student achievement and cognitive load

Multimedia learning environments such as computer simulations are widely accepted as tools for supporting science learning. Although the design of multimedia learning environments can be domain specific, few studies have focused on the use of computer simulations for learning residential electrical wiring. This study aimed to determine whether students using computer simulations learned better than traditional classroom learners in the domain of residential wiring. A quasi‐experiment was implemented with 169 high school students. The simulation group participated in a series of computer simulations, whereas the control group received lectures and demonstrations from an instructor. Students' cognitive load as elevated by multimedia leaning tasks was compared with that of students learning using traditional methods. The simulation group learned significantly better and reported higher cognitive load than did the control group. Moreover, the simulation group managed cognitive resources more efficiently on transfer of learning than did the control group. Having more opportunities to interact with a simulation‐based learning environment could result in higher cognitive load. The higher cognitive load seemed to result in better performance on the achievement test and, therefore, the learners' mental effort was possibly invested mainly in meaning making in the virtual learning environments. Discussion of the results, instruments and research design, as well as suggestions for future studies are provided.     

Structured extracurricular activities among adolescents: Findings and implications for school psychologists

One factor that contributes to adolescent positive mental health is active engagement. Engagement is defined as any activity that is initiated to attain an outcome. In general, two forms of activities exist that correspond with engagement: solitary, non‐structured, and non‐cooperative pursuits, often without adult supervision (e.g., playing video games, watching television) and highly structured, collaborative activities that are under the guidance of a competent set of adults (i.e., structured extracurricular activities, or SEAs). Although large amounts of time spent in unstructured activities is related to negative psychosocial outcomes, participation in SEAs has been related to a variety of positive outcomes for students. This paper reviews current research regarding adolescent participation in SEAs and its effects on academic and personal‐social variables (i.e., self‐concept, life satisfaction), as well as potential preventive effects for youths considered to be “at‐risk” for negative developmental outcomes. The paper also examines research investigating the potential benefits and shortcomings of different types of SEAs. Finally, suggestions for future research and school‐based preventive intervention are presented. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 31–41, 2004.     

The Facilitation of Information Processing in Learning Disabled Children Using Computer Games

Abstract The aim of the study was to improve the information processing and concentration skills of learning disabled (LD) children by using computer games in a procedure that enhances self‐verbalisation and mediated learning. Of the 21 LD children who participated in the study, 14 were trained in the specific procedure, while at the same time the seven children in the control group participated in regular tutorial activities in small groups. Subsequently, in the second training period, the control group was instructed to play commercial strategic games, with no stress on self‐verbalisation procedures and the experimental group participated in regular classroom tutorial activities, without computers. The following measures were used to assess the effect of the training: MFFT, Progressive Matrices and three subtests of the WISC‐R. The results demonstrated that the computer games presented within the framework of self‐verbalisation procedures and peer‐interaction facilitate the information processing of LD children. The interactions of passive and impulsive LD children with computer‐related activities should be examined in future research within the context of their ecological environment.     

Reinforcer Preferences of Secondary Students with Disabilities

WHILE TEACHERS are often the ones who select the objects, events and activities that serve as potential reinforcers in their contingency management systems, research indicates that teachers are not always accurate in their selection of reinforcers that are motivating to their students. This study examined the reinforcement preferences of 110 secondary students with disabilities. Respondents rated 90 potential reinforcers using a three‐point Likert scale. Results indicated that while student preferences represent a range of reinforcers within existing reinforcement hierarchies, the sample group tended to prefer less intrusive higher level reinforcers. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

The role of cognitive style in educational computer conferencing

This paper reports an investigation of the impact of students’ cognitive style on their effective use of educational text‐based computer‐mediated conferences. The research centres on an empirical study involving students from three courses run by the British Open University. Statistical analysis of the data does not suggest that cognitive style has a strong influence on student participation in the conference, but does suggest that, contrary to expectations, ‘imagers’ may send more messages to conferences than ‘verbalisers’. The data also suggest a possible link between certain cognitive styles and course completion, and that the interaction of different styles within a group, as described by Riding and Rayner's (1998 ) team roles, may have an indirect influence on task completion.     

Masculine generics=sexist language: A review of literature and implications for speech communication professionals

This article reviews empirically based studies demonstrating gender‐biased perceptions resulting from use of “man”‐linked words (e.g., “mankind”) and third‐person‐singular masculine pronouns. Contrary to commonsense beliefs, neither of these linguistic conventions has been found to he associated with equal likelihood perceptions of female and male referents. Specific suggestions are made for the adoption of alternatives to masculine generics in speech and communication teaching and research reportage. Also, suggestions are made for research and development activities.     

Effects of student‐generated questions as the source of online drill‐and‐practice activities on learning

This study investigated the effects of online drill‐and‐practice activities using student‐generated questions on academic performance and motivation as compared with online drill‐and‐practice using teacher‐generated questions and no drill‐and‐practice in a student question‐generation (SQG) learning context. A quasi‐experimental research method was adopted for the purposes of this study. Six fifth‐grade classes (n = 145) participated in a weekly online activity for 5 weeks. Analysis of covariance results showed significant differences among the different treatment groups with regard to both academic performance and motivation. Post hoc comparisons using simultaneous confidence intervals, however, did not demonstrate the use of online SQG combined with answering peer‐generated questions to be more conducive to learning with regard to any of the observed variables as compared with the use of online SQG combined with answering teacher‐generated questions. Furthermore, answering student‐generated questions in addition to online SQG did not lead to added gains in learning as compared with the online SQG‐alone group. Some reasons for the unexpected findings are proposed, and the significance of this study, as well as suggestions for instructional implementations and future research, are provided.     

Computer conferencing with access to a 'guest expert' in the professional development of special educational needs coordinators

This article describes and outlines the implications of a one‐year case study of students’ use of the computer conferencing facility of a postgraduate module for special educational needs coordinators (SENCOs) at a distance‐learning institution. This facility incorporates a virtual space for a ‘guest expert’. The aim of the study was to inform future development of courses at a time when computer conferencing was just becoming widespread in the university concerned. Quantitative data associated with the volume and patterns of individual participation in the computer conference were collected as well as interview material from students, tutors and the ‘guest expert’. Findings from the study indicate that computer conferencing has the potential to facilitate the professional development of teachers as reflective practitioners and researchers. However, they also point to a number of barriers to student participation that must be addressed. These include access issues related to time constraints, unfamiliarity with the medium, and lack of confidence in expressing personal views in a public arena. A major conclusion drawn from this study is that it may be appropriate to consider future developments which incorporate the assumption that, in computer conferences of large professional development courses, students are much more likely to participate through reading rather than making personal contributions to conference discussions. This opens the possibility of reconceptualising the role of the ‘guest expert’ as two or more discussants with relevant expertise dialoguing with each other while students follow a threaded discussion and/or make personal contributions.     

Relationships between students' and instructional variables with satisfaction and learning from a Web-based course

The author discusses the results of a study about the effect of students' and instructional variables on satisfaction and achievement in a Web-based course. Results indicated that gender, age, learning styles, time spent on the course, and perceptions of student–student interactions, course activities, and asynchronous Web-based conferences were not related to satisfaction and learning outcomes. Those students who entered the course with better Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) scores achieved higher final grades in the course, but did not express more satisfaction with the learning environment. Computer experience did not influence achievement but experienced computer users were more satisfied with the course. Students who perceived the student–instructor interactions positively felt that their discussion group had performed well during the conferences, and viewed the learning materials used in the conferences positively improved grades and were more satisfied with the course. Students expected instructor-led learning. There is a need to explicitly design an organising strategy to assist students in completing the problem-based learning processes during the Web-based conferences.     

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING TEACHING IN COMMUNITY COLLEGES: AN ABUNDANCE OF FEELINGS AND LIMITED FACTS

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate outcomes of the Virginia Community College System's (VCCSs) Professional Development Initiative, specically to determine the extent to which documented professional development needs of faculty members had been addressed and the extent to which student learning had been enhanced. Results of a five-year follow-up survey and the qualitative research techniques applied to peer group conferences and research grants revealed that specific professional development needs of faculty members were being met through the VCCS Professional Development Initiative. More faculty members were attending conferences or professional meetings their professional activity of choice than five years earlier as a result of increased funding for this development activity, particularly through peer group conferences and other VCCS sponsored workshops and meetings. Peer group conferences effectively addressed the problem of professional isolation, bringing together faculty members from every discipline to address significant professional issues and learn from each other. Research grants supported and encouraged faculty scholarship in every major area of development. Both peer group conferences and research grants provided faculty members with opportunities to keep abreast of the rapid technological changes affecting teaching and learning. Most importantly, the research findings indicated that the VCCS Professional Development Initiative had succeeded remarkably well in achieving its overarching goal enhancing student learning.     

A Discourse Analysis of School Counseling Supervisory E‐Mail

This article is a discourse analysis of weekly computer‐mediated communications between 8 school counseling interns and their e‐mail supervisor over a 16‐week semester. Course‐required e‐mail supervision was provided as an adjunct to traditional face‐to‐face individual and group supervision. School counselor supervisees and supervisor enacted 3 discursive strategies (repetition, labeling, and plural pronoun usage), which were observed to contribute to supervisee professional identity development. Findings are discussed in light of both the counselor education and discourse analysis literatures. Implications for practice and future research are provided.     

Current research on the social and emotional development of gifted and talented students: Good news and future possibilities

A recent summary of research produced by a task force of psychologists and educational researchers associated with the National Association for Gifted Children and the National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented indicated that high‐ability students are generally at least as well adjusted as any other group of youngsters. This research also found, however, that gifted and talented students can face a number of situations that may constitute sources of risk to their social and emotional development. Some of these issues emerge because of a mismatch with educational environments that are not responsive to the pace and level of gifted students' learning and thinking. Others occur because of unsupportive social, school, or home environments. In this article, current research about the social and emotional development of gifted and talented students is summarized and suggestions are made about strategies to enhance these students' school experiences. Suggestions are provided for assessment and educational programming based on students' strengths and interests that may result in helping talented students realize their potential. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 119–130, 2004.     

Teachers' computer anxiety: implications for professional development

Changes in society's expectations mean that school teachers need to be able to use computers in education with minimal anxiety. Some 350 primary and secondary school teachers completed a questionnaire that identified sources of computer anxiety and provided teachers with the opportunity to suggest solutions. The teachers were very supportive of the use of computers in education, but reported moderately low levels of computer competence. A number of suggestions for the reduction of computer anxiety are made, based on teachers' first-hand accounts, and an analysis of trends in the quantitative data. The implications of these suggestions for teachers' professional development are explored     

Conservation learning in wildlife tourism settings: lessons from research in zoos and aquariums

Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non‐captive wildlife tourism. In particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’ conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning. These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the context of non‐captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.     

The smiling philosopher: Emotional labor,gender, and harassment in conference spaces

Abstract

Conference environments enable diverse roles for academics. However, conferences are hardly entered into by participants as equals. Academics enter into and experience professional environments differently according to culture, gender, race, ethnicity, class, and more. This paper considers from a philosophical perspective entering and initiating culturally into academic conferences as a woman. It discusses theories of gender and emotional labor and emotional management, focusing on Arlie Hochschild’s foundational work, and affect in gendered social relations, considering Sara Ahmed’s theorization of the feminist killjoy and the affect alien. It applies these lenses to explore problematic experiences of women initiates at conferences. The paper proceeds with a theoretical discussion of gender, emotional labor, and affect. Then the paper discusses women academics’ experiences generally and at conferences, including educational research conferences, with reference to relevant higher education research as well as anecdotal evidence, relating these experiences to the theories. It thus aims to tie together theoretical insights, higher education scholarship, and ordinary real-life experiences of gendered social relations in conference activities.