A coaching intervention for college students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

In this article we describe coaching as an intervention for college students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Coaching college students with ADHD empowers individuals to organize and execute their responsibilities, both in academia and in everyday life. With the assistance of a coach, individuals with ADHD can create structure and execute change by identifying strategies that circumvent their deficits in executive functioning. We also present an example of a representative client to illustrate the methods used in coaching. Given the increased risks facing college students with ADHD, coaching is a useful complement to academic advising and intensive therapy. Our discussion includes obstacles to implementing and evaluating an ADHD coaching intervention. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 647–656, 2005.     

Executive Function Coaching for College Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD: A New Approach for Fostering Self‐Determination

Given growing numbers of college students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or learning disabilities (LD), it is important to understand why these students choose ADD (“executive function”) coaching to enhance their academic success when more traditional forms of campus support already offer this help. Fifty‐four undergraduates with ADHD and/or LD participated in a study of their experiences with coaching. To better understand students’ perspectives on the manner in which coaching helped them minimize executive function challenges while addressing academic goals, a purposive sample of seven of these students participated in two interviews. All seven described highly self‐determined approaches to goal attainment that they associated with coaching. These students also reported that, in contrast to traditional campus services, coaching focused primarily on supporting their emerging autonomy, helping them develop and manage their executive function skills and promoting their self‐efficacy and confidence about future success. Findings are linked to recommendations for additional research and service delivery options.     

Longitudinal analysis of the trajectories of academic and social motivation across the transition from elementary to middle school

School transitions are important phases in students’ educational experiences. The current study aimed to explore the trajectories of academic and social motivation across the transition from elementary to middle school. Participants (N = 415) were sampled from six elementary schools; 55% transitioned after sixth grade (transition) and 45% remained at the same school (no-transition). The students reported academic and social goals and perceived teacher goal emphasis at four time points over two successive years. A growth curve analysis revealed that students who transitioned reported a greater decline in mastery goals and an increase in performance-approach goals. Students from no-transition schools reported higher initial levels for all social goals, with a steeper decline in seventh grade. Perceived teacher goal emphasis was associated with social development goals over time. Practitioners should be aware that school transitions may influence academic motivation but may not similarly influence social motivation.     

Goal setting and behavior contracting for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties: Analysis of daily,weekly, and total goal attainment

Goal setting and behavior contracting were combined for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties in a public elementary school. Attainment for daily, weekly, and total contract goals were analyzed over 5 years across 43 special education students. Goal setting involved goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback. Behavior contracts involved a main goal, target behavior, recording, feedback, and reward contingency. Contracts focused on low-frequency behaviors to be increased (e.g., cooperation), or high-frequency behaviors to be decreased (e.g., aggression). Mean completion time for contracts was 6.4 weeks. Results indicated high and consistent attainment percentages for daily (75%), weekly (72%), and total (86%) contract goals. Findings suggest that the motivational aspects of behavior contracting and goal setting may combine to produce maximum success for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Limitations and implications are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Relationships among properties of college students’ self-set academic goals and academic achievement

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among properties of college students’ self-set academic goals and academic achievement, using multiple theoretical perspectives. Using a personal goal-based research methodology, college students enrolled in a learning-to-learn course (N?=?130) were asked to list 20 of their goals (academic and/or non-academic). For each of their goals, goal specificity, value, expectation of success and autonomous and controlled motivation were measured and then ratings on each goal property were averaged across students’ academic goals (24.75% of all goals) to predict students’ grade point average (GPA) for the semester. Regression results suggested a positive affect on students’ semester GPA for goal specificity and a negative effect for controlled motivation; the model explained 19% of the variation in GPA. This research may help to inform motivation researchers and educational practitioners who assist college students with goal setting.     

Who benefits from mastery-approach and performance-approach goals in college? Students’ social class as a moderator of the link between goals and grade

Although approach forms of achievement goals (mastery and performance goals) have been shown to predict academic achievement in college, recent research underscores that these associations are rather weak and not consistently observed. The present study tests students’ social class (in the present research, generational status) as a moderator of the relationships between both mastery-approach goals and performance-approach goals and final grade. One hundred students (45 first-generation students and 55 continuing-generation students, M _age = 18.9, SD = 1.52) answered an achievement goal scale related to one of their classes at the beginning of the year. Their final grade for this class was obtained three months later. As expected, performance-approach goals positively predicted final grade only for upper-class students, while mastery-approach goals tend to do so for lower-class students, supporting the idea that different kinds of motivation could predict students’ achievement depending on their social class.     

Academic buoyancy mediates academic anxiety’s effects on learning strategies: an investigation of English- and Chinese-speaking Australian students

Abstract

A primary goal our study was to explore whether relations between academic anxiety and students’ use of a range of learning strategies (memorisation, elaboration, personal best [PB] goals and cooperation) were mediated by academic buoyancy. We were also interested in extending knowledge of anxiety and its role in students’ learning strategy use. Given mixed findings regarding the impact of language spoken at home on psycho-educational factors, our third aim involved investigating the extent to which relationships were moderated by language (English vs. Chinese-speaking). The sample consisted of n = 380 English-speaking and Chinese-speaking (Mandarin and Cantonese) Australian high school students, with groups (n = 190 each) matched on age and gender, and controlling for parental education and prior academic achievement. We found mediation effects of academic buoyancy across the four learning strategies. In addition, anxiety was positively associated with memorisation, elaboration and PB goals in the mediation analyses. Mediation effects were broadly similar across the two languages; however, there were some significant differences across the two groups. Findings hold relevance for future research on academic buoyancy’s nomological network, the role of language spoken at home in the academic process and the design of interventions addressing academic buoyancy and academic anxiety.     

Determinants of timely completion: the impact of Bachelor's degree programme characteristics and student motivation on study progress

Timely completion of university degree programmes is a topic of growing concern to higher education institutions and their students. This paper reports on a study about the impact of degree programme characteristics and student motivation on study progress. The setting for the study is a Dutch law school. Data on degree programme characteristics, student ability, motivation, academic performance and academic pressure were collected from 168 first-year students six months after the start of their studies. Analysis of the effects of degree programme characteristics and students' initial motivation on study progress shows that study progress mainly depends on ability, timely completion goals and transparency of assessments. The study also shows that transparency of assessment procedures considerably lowers fear of failure and academic pressure.     

Autonomous and controlling reasons underlying achievement goals during task engagement: their relation to intrinsic motivation and cheating

The aim of this study was to investigate the relation of autonomous and controlling reasons underlying an endorsed achievement goal to intrinsic motivation and cheating. The endorsement of the achievement goal was ensured by involving 212 (M_age = 19.24, SD = .97) freshman students in a spatial task and asking them to report their most important achievement goal, as well as the reasons for adopting the goal, during the task. Results from a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that independent of the achievement goal the students adopted, the autonomous reasons for the endorsed goal were positively related to the indices of intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the autonomous reasons underlying either performance or mastery-avoidance goals were negatively related to cheating. Alternatively, the controlling reasons for the endorsed goal were positively related to pressure and tension. The importance of considering both the ‘what’ and the ‘why’ aspect of achievement motivation are discussed.     

Effects of Self‐Concept on Restoring a Positive Motivational State After an Exam‐Like Situation

Exams often trigger avoidance motivation and a tendency to withdraw; instead, an approach‐oriented motivational state would be more desirable, since this encourages an invigorated and persistent approach to tasks. This study investigated the role of academic self‐concept on the activation of relative approach versus avoidance motivation during the course of an exam‐like situation. In 62 university students (50 women), academic self‐concept was assessed using self‐ratings, and activation of approach versus avoidance motivation was assessed by using the electroencephalogram alpha asymmetry response. Academic self‐concept proved to be an important moderator of motivational responses during the challenging situation. A more negative self‐concept was related to sustained decrease in approach motivation, to rumination, and to worsened mood. In contrast, a positive self‐concept was related to more positive mood and activation of approach motivation even beyond task completion. The findings have educational implications, for instance, for the design of exams and performance feedback.     

Assessment policies and academic performance within a single course: the role of motivation and self-regulation

Abstract

Despite the frequently reported association of characteristics of assessment policies with academic performance, the mechanisms through which these policies affect performance are largely unknown. Therefore, the current research investigated performance, motivation and self-regulation for two groups of students following the same statistics course, but under two assessment policies: education and child studies (ECS) students studied under an assessment policy with relatively higher stakes, a higher performance standard and a lower resit standard, compared with Psychology students. Results show similar initial performance, but more use of resits and higher final performance (post-resit) under the ECS policy compared with the psychology policy. In terms of motivation and self-regulation, under the ECS policy significantly higher minimum grade goals, performance self-efficacy, task value, time and study environment management, and test anxiety were observed, but there were no significant differences in aimed grade goals, academic self-efficacy and effort regulation. The relations of motivational and self-regulatory factors with academic performance were similar between both assessment policies. Thus, educators should be keenly aware of how characteristics of assessment policies are related to students’ motivation, self-regulation and academic performance.     

College Students With ADHD and LD: Effects of Support Services on Academic Performance

Two relatively common disabilities reported by college students are attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities (LD). Many questions remain regarding how best to support these students and whether services such as advising, coaching, and tutoring lead to significant academic gains. The current study examined the effect of support services on the GPA of students with LD and/or ADHD at a campus that specifically serves this population by tracking students’ support service usage and GPAs over a 5‐year period. Results indicate that although most students who choose to receive coaching support experience academic gains, it is students with ADHD who obtain the greatest gains in GPA as a result of this support. Additionally, although tutoring can be of benefit to all students, significant GPA gains were obtained only for students with an LD diagnosis. Thus, there is a need to provide targeted supports aimed at addressing students’ specific areas of challenge.     

The 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Teachers

Within the past decade, the achievement goal approach has begun to be used to study teacher achievement motivation. In recent research with students, a 3 × 2 model of achievement goals has been proffered that separates mastery-based goals in terms of a task/self distinction. The purpose of the present study was to extend this 3 × 2 model to teachers in order to provide important insights into teachers’ individual differences. We devised items for the questionnaire and showed that data obtained with the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Teachers fit the 3 × 2 model (in absolute terms and relative to 10 alternative models) and that each goal of the model exhibited good internal consistency. In addition, we linked the 3 × 2 goals to other key constructs relevant to achievement goals, namely, implicit theories of ability, instructional practices and intrinsic interest.     

How elementary school students' motivation is connected to self-regulation

Empirical research reveals that students face difficulties engaging in learning and achieving their goals in a variety of learning contexts. To study effectively, students need to regulate their learning process. In spite of increased understanding of cognitive aspects of self-regulation, motivational aspects of regulation have not yet been thoroughly probed. This study investigates how motivation is connected to self-regulated learning when elementary school students (N = 32) study science in real classroom contexts using gStudy software. This was done by: (1) identifying students' situated motivation during the learning process, (2) analyzing how the students with different motivational approaches activated cognitive self-regulation in authentic learning situations across multiple learning episodes, and (3) complementing the understanding with the students' individual accounts of their motivation regulation during the learning process. The results show that there are qualitative differences in the self-regulation tactics used by the high- and low-motivation students as they study. Motivation is linked closely to active self-regulation.     

Evaluating the Usability of a Professional Modeling Tool Repurposed for Middle School Learning

This paper reports the results of a three-stage usability test of a modeling tool designed to support learners’ deep understanding of the impacts of climate change on ecosystems. The design process involved repurposing an existing modeling technology used by professional scientists into a learning tool specifically designed for middle school students. To evaluate usability, we analyzed students’ task performance and task completion time as they worked on an activity with the repurposed modeling technology. In stage 1, we conducted remote testing of an early modeling prototype with urban middle school students (n = 84). In stages 2 and 3, we used screencasting software to record students’ mouse and keyboard movements during collaborative think-alouds (n = 22) and conducted a qualitative analysis of their peer discussions. Taken together, the study findings revealed two kinds of usability issues that interfered with students’ productive use of the tool: issues related to the use of data and information, and issues related to the use of the modeling technology. The study findings resulted in design improvements that led to stronger usability outcomes and higher task performance among students. In this paper, we describe our methods for usability testing, our research findings, and our design solutions for supporting students’ use of the modeling technology and use of data. The paper concludes with implications for the design and study of modeling technologies for science learning.     

Engagement in Academic Work: The Role of Learning Goals, Future Consequences, Pleasing Others, and Perceived Ability

Engagement in academic work was viewed from a multiple goals perspective. Two studies were conducted in which high school math students completed an instrument measuring five goals students might have for doing academic work (learning goals, performance goals, obtaining future consequences, pleasing the teacher, and pleasing the family), perceived math ability, self-regulatory activities, strategies (deep or shallow) used when studying for math, and the amount of effort and persistence expended on the class. Factor analysis indicated that the five goals scales and the perceived ability scale represented unique factors. The correlations among the variables revealed theoretically consistent interrelationships. Multiple regression analyses indicated that various goals (e.g., learning goals, obtaining future consequences, and pleasing the teacher), perceived ability, and some interactions accounted for significant amounts of variance in the task engagement measures (self-regulation, strategy use, effort, and persistence) and achievement. Results are discussed in relation to current theory and their practical implications.     

Profiling individual differences in student motivation: A longitudinal cluster-analytic study in different academic contexts

This research examined whether distinct student profiles emerged from measures of interest, mastery goals, task value, and self-efficacy in samples of Norwegian student nurses and business administration students. Additionally, profile differences in self-reported strategy use and epistemological beliefs were examined, as well as changes in student profiles over one academic year. Distinct groups of participants were identified in both samples, with considerable consistency in student profiles across the two academic contexts. In both contexts, more positively motivated participants consistently reported more use of deeper-level strategies and expressed more sophisticated beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowledge acquisition. The longitudinal analysis showed that despite overall decreases in adaptive motivation in both contexts, many participants were able to maintain relatively high levels of motivation across the academic year, and, especially among the business administration students, quite a few developed more adaptive motivation over time. Yet, a great many participants in both samples lost some of their enthusiasm and engagement.     

An investigation of gender and age differences in academic motivation and classroom behaviour in adolescents

This study investigated gender- and age-related differences in academic motivation and classroom behaviour in adolescents. Eight hundred and fifty-five students (415 girls and 440 boys) aged 11–16 (M age = 13.96, SD = 1.47) filled in a questionnaire that examined student academic motivation and teachers completed a questionnaire reporting student classroom behaviour. Interestingly, early adolescent boys’ (11–12 years) self-reported academic motivation was significantly more closely associated with reports of student classroom behaviour completed by teachers. However, a surprising result was the significant drop in girls’ adaptive motivation from early to mid-adolescence (13–14 years) and a significant increase in mid-adolescence (13–14 years). Furthermore, teachers reported a significant increase in negative classroom behaviour in mid-adolescent and late adolescent girls (15–16 years). The need to further understand the association between academic motivation and classroom behaviour at different stages in adolescence, and to design interventions to improve classroom behaviour, is deliberated.     

Quality of Life of Higher Education Students with Learning Disability Studying Online

This study examined how learning challenges encountered within online learning environments affected the quality of life of students with learning disability. A qualitative content analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with eight students (mean _age = 33.75 years; SD = 8.15), revealed that learning challenges had consequences on students quality of life with regards to levels of stress/anxiety, self-esteem, time available for other activities, personal relationships and financial pressures. A notable finding was that these quality of life concerns were frequently associated with the extra time and effort students invested in their studies as a way of managing the learning challenges encountered. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem previously reported for students with learning disability; and underscore the importance of minimising learning barriers, providing study accommodations, and providing multifaceted support programmes that address both academic and emotional/personal concerns.