Racism and citizenship education in Northern Ireland

Racist attitudes towards, and attacks on, the minority ethnic populations in Northern Ireland (NI) have increased dramatically over the last number of years. Despite the increased media attention regarding racist attacks, the fallacy that racism is not a major problem in NI is an enduring one. However, there is a growing recognition that minority ethnic communities experience a diverse range of racial harassment. Education is a mode promoted by national and European governments as the vehicle in which anti-racism programmes can be delivered. This article suggests the impending introduction of a statutory citizenship education (CE) component to the revised NI curriculum from September 2007 can play an important role in tackling the high levels of racism being experienced by the minority ethnic population in NI.     

Religious Segregation and the Emergence of Integrated Schools in Northern Ireland

A distinctive characteristic of the education system in Northern Ireland is that most Protestant and Catholic children attend separate schools. Following the partition of Ireland the Protestant Churches transferred their schools to the new state in return for full funding and representation in the management of state controlled schools and non-denominational religious instruction was given a statutory place within such schools. The Catholic Church retained control over its own system of voluntary maintained schools, initially receiving only 65% of capital funding; however all grant-aided schools in Northern Ireland are now eligible for full funding of running costs and capital development. This paper highlights the emergence of a small number of integrated schools since the 1980s. Catholic and Protestant parents have come together as the impetus for these schools and this presents an implicit challenge to the status quo of church involvement in the management and control of schools. In practical terms the integrated schools have had to develop more inclusive arrangements for religious education, and legislation that permits existing schools to 'transform' into integrated schools also presents new challenges for the society as a whole.     

Anti‐racism and the ‘New’ South African Educational Order

This article traces the desegregation of South African schools, particularly within the Gauteng region, from 1990 to 1996. It argues that there is a discernible shift from ‘race’ to ethnicity in the educational discourses of South Africa and that at school level the response to ethnicity has been predominantly assimilationist. Attempts to move towards a more multicultural way of operating are affected by conceptions of identity as stereotyped, homogenised and generalised, leading to ‘bad’ multicultural approaches being adopted. Simultaneously, within official enunciations at national level, a consistent anti‐racist stance is emphasised in order to ‘redress’ apartheid's legacies. I argue that such initiatives are limited due to their structurally functionalist underpinnings and their failure to address the complexity of identities contained within the classifications of ‘black’ and ‘white’. I argue that, on both the macro and the micro level, questions of identity and difference are central in developing a school (and societal) environment that is not only free from racism, but other forms of discrimination too.     

A content analysis of school anti-bullying policies in Northern Ireland

This original study presents a content analysis of 100 primary and post-primary school anti-bullying policies in Northern Ireland using a 36-item scoring scheme. Overall schools had 52% of the items in their policies. Most schools included reference to physical, verbal, relational, material and cyberbullying but a minority mentioned racist, homophobic, sexual, adult/teacher–pupil bullying or bullying related to disability or religion. There was considerable variation in the source and quality of the definitions of bullying. Overall the policy scores compared favourably with earlier studies carried out in England, however a low percentage of Northern Ireland policies gave detailed information about how incidents of bullying would be recorded, who would coordinate this, and how the data would be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy. Findings are discussed in relation to the proposed new anti-bullying legislation currently being brought before the Northern Ireland Assembly.     

Experiencing inclusion within a Northern Ireland secondary school: the perspectives of migrant students from four European countries

The article focuses upon a small‐scale research project undertaken in a Northern Ireland secondary school. Using a questionnaire, the article explores the views of a sample of young people from four European countries who are enrolled at the school, regarding the school's inclusive policy and associated practices. In recent years, Northern Ireland has experienced a significant increase in the number of migrant families that have settled in the province; this has presented schools with a challenge as to how their policies on inclusion are capable of embracing the needs of students with different cultural experiences and expectations. It is apparent that the school has made a considerable investment to provide a positive experience for these students. Likewise, it is evident that there are both financial and staff development implications associated with creating an inclusive school culture.     

Visioning New Modes of Integrated and Shared Schooling in Northern Ireland

Planning for shared schooling in Northern Ireland requires a re-consideration of the decision-making processes that underpin the choices made by parents and a re-thinking of the nature and purpose of alternative modes of educating young people from the different communities together. The article provides evidence that demand for existing integrated schools in Northern Ireland is growing at a rapid rate and that there is a need to ensure that school places are provided where demand exists. Given recent developments in Scotland, however, in relation to shared schools, it is suggested that new approaches may involve examining the application of this policy to Northern Ireland and, also, opening debate concerning the potential for further development of new forms of shared schooling. These new possibilities offer opportunities to enable young people to encounter a broader range of peers and experience more diverse cultures while retaining the support of the current Controlled (Protestant) and Maintained (Catholic) sectors. The fraught journey towards integrated education in a divided society has implications for European societies where religious belief, intertwined with ethnicity, has been implicated in communal discord and conflict.     

History,identity, and the school curriculum in Northern Ireland: an empirical study of secondary students' ideas and perspectives

This study reports results of an empirical investigation of secondary students' conceptions of history and identity in Northern Ireland. Interviews with 253 students from a variety of backgrounds indicate that they initially identify with a wide range of historical themes, but that these identifications narrow as they study the required national curriculum during the first 3 years of secondary school. Often, they draw selectively from the formal curriculum in order to support their developing identification with the history of their own political/religious communities. This process is most apparent among boys, at predominantly Protestant schools, and in schools located in areas of conflict. These findings suggest that to address history's role in ongoing community conflict, educators may need to challenge more directly the beliefs and assumptions held by students of varied backgrounds, as well as to provide a clearer alternative to the partisan histories encountered elsewhere.     

Accountability in Partnership or Partnership in Accountability: Initial teacher education in Northern Ireland

This paper analyses accountability and partnership in Initial Teacher Education for the primary school sector in Northern Ireland. In considering teacher education, the paper focuses on three higher education institutions: Stranmillis University College, St Mary's University College and the University of Ulster. Of the three institutions, the Roman Catholic Church maintains St Mary's University College while the other institutions have no religious affiliations. The paper focuses on the reform of teacher education within the British Isles and sets Northern Ireland into a context of a system of teacher education which has developed new patterns of accountability. Three sources of evidence are used to analyse accountability; firstly the perception of schools that are partners in Initial Teacher Education; secondly, the views of the Education and Training Inspectorate who are responsible for accrediting teacher education in Northern Ireland; and thirdly, the views of the three university schools of education. The paper will demonstrate how teacher education in Northern Ireland is simultaneously similar to, and different from, teacher education in the rest of the developed world. It will illuminate the dimensions of accountability in the primary school sector and show how in Northern Ireland this is heavily segregated by religious denomination.     

Citizenship Education in Northern Ireland: Beyond national identity?

The introduction of citizenship education to the curriculum of all schools in Northern Ireland is one way of underpinning a long-term commitment to democratic politics as part of a fragile peace process. However, the concept of citizenship requires careful consideration in a society where there are different loyalties that give rise to conflict over the future constitutional status of the society itself. Neither British nor Irish national identity provides the basis for a 'patriotic' model of citizenship that could be accepted in all schools. This article describes the commitments and confidence-building measures contained in the Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement and its implications for developing a concept of citizenship that might transcend the two main nationalisms that exist in Northern Ireland.     

Constructing the ethos of tolerance and respect in an integrated school: the role of teachers

This article seeks to explore how teachers develop tolerance and respect within an inclusive school in Northern Ireland. Drawing on interviews and observation of 18 teachers, it will be shown that teachers' own personal values and assumptions exert a defining influence on the school ethos. It will be argued that if teachers are not accorded the time and space to develop a critical understanding of their own values and beliefs then there is the potential for schools to simply reinforce the psychological barriers which sustain division.     

Discourses that silence: teachers and anti-lesbian harassment

This paper examines the way lesbian identities are silenced in schools particularly through anti-lesbian harassment. Based on research with 30 self-identified lesbian teachers working across high schools in New South Wales, Australia, the discussion illustrates how various responses to anti-lesbian harassment silence the recognition of such harassment, contributing to the invisibility of lesbian identities in schools generally. The argument highlights the shifting nature of both the subject and power. It illustrates how discursively (re)positioning harassers re-establishes and reinforces the harassed teacher's personal and professional power; however, this simultaneously serves to rationalise the harassment. This silences the awareness of the prevalence of anti-lesbian abuse by individualising the behaviour and pathologising the harasser, while ignoring broader socio-political discourses that maintain the frequently subordinated location of lesbian subjectivities.     

Australian Lesbian Teachers-a reflection of homophobic harassment of high school teachers in New South Wales government schools

This article examines the homophobic harassment of lesbian teachers working in government high schools in Sydney, Australia. Six women were interviewed about their experiences of student homophobia, including how they dealt with that harassment on both a personal and practical level and their philosophies on youth homophobia and anti-homophobic education in New South Wales government schools. The article demonstrates the fact that harassment based on sexual orientation is often an invisible issue in schools, as is homosexuality in general. It also demonstrates that there is inadequate training of staff and too few resources available to enhance tolerance of homosexuality. It shows that teaching about homosexual tolerance needs to be an 'en masse' strategy, where the issue of homosexuality and anti-homophobia strategies are not categorised under any broad umbrella term, but where they are prioritised to become visible, overtly discussed and hence, addressed issues.     

A need to belong? The prevalence of experiences of belonging and exclusion in school among minority ethnic children living in the ‘White hinterlands’

Based on a survey of 711 children in Northern Ireland, this paper explores a range of aspects of experiences of belonging and exclusion in relation to school among three main minority ethnic groups: Irish Traveller, Chinese/Asian and European Migrant children. The study examines variations between each group and how they compare to the White settled population. The findings indicate that all three groups experience lower levels of belonging and higher levels of exclusion compared to their White, settled Northern Irish peers. The experiences of Irish Traveller children were the most negative. The article adds to the dearth of data on minority ethnic children living in mainly white regions in the UK and Ireland. It argues for the need to move beyond achievement gaps in assessing minority ethnic children's differential experiences in education and highlights the potential of belongingness as a concept for the further study of differential patterns of need and processes of inclusion.     

The governmentality of reconciliation: adult education as a community relations technique in Northern Ireland

Despite a successfully negotiated peace agreement in Belfast in 1998, tensions between different community groups continue to exist in Northern Ireland. This situation creates a governmental need to find solutions to problems such as segregation, inter- and intra-group violence and other forms of sectarian antagonisms. On the one hand, this is attempted by disciplinary measures such as ‘peace walls’ and an increased presence of state powers such as police and armed forces. On the other hand, community relations discourses remain a common refrain in Northern Ireland with their focus on a ‘conduct of conduct’ approach. In this article, I seek to understand adult community education through community relations initiatives and designated anti-sectarian courses as a governmental technology in Northern Ireland designed to change technologies of the self. The article highlights the possibilities for a way forward inherent in this approach and links community relations to broader contexts of policy developments in Northern Ireland.     

Attitudes to lying in children aged 8/9 and 11/12

Abstract

The paper considers the way in which white teachers and students make sense of ‘race’ in a multiracial college of further education. It argues that within white cultural forms there are two main ways of comprehending race, the ‘nationalistic’ and ‘liberal’. It suggests however that these two forms are interrelated and that paradoxically the nationalistic may feed in and support a white ‘liberalism’. It is argued that the liberal form's denial of structure serves to sustain a white racism. On a more positive note it is argued that teachers’ concerns with equal opportunities provide an important resource in the development of an anti‐racist education.     

Achievements in Mathematics and Science in an International Context

Starting from educational aims that emphasise tolerance and understanding, the focus of this article is to analyse how difference is constructed in students’ informal relations, by enactments of bullying and sex-based and racist harassment. The article also discusses how young people themselves and teachers reflect on these kinds of processes. These questions are explored using data obtained from different perspectives: 1) ethnographic observations in secondary school classes of 7th graders; 2) interviews of the students in these classes (about 13 years of age); 3) interviews of the teachers that taught these classes; and 4) follow-up interviews of the same young people at the age around 18. The findings suggest that students’ individual diversities are sometimes constructed to “different-ness” in everyday life at school. “Different-ness” might be used as a reason for bullying, racism, or sex-based harassment. In schools this is not effectively addressed by teachers.     

Children's rights and special educational needs: findings from research conducted for the Northern Ireland Commissioner for Children and Young People

This article describes recent research conducted on behalf of the Northern Ireland Commissioner for Children and Young People. The study highlights a number of emerging issues including: limited decision‐making opportunities for children; statementing and assessment; and other issues specific to mainstream and special schools. The article concludes with an assessment of recent developments and future prospects for children and young people who experience learning difficulties.     

Management of bullying in Northern Ireland schools: a pre-legislative survey

Background:?Unlike the rest of the UK, Northern Ireland has only recently (2003) implemented legislation regarding the requirement for anti-bullying policies in the province's school system.

Purpose:?The purpose of the study was to ascertain the nature of the management of bully/victim problems across Northern Ireland schools prior to the enactment of legislation.

Sample:?From an exhaustive sampling frame of all 1329 schools in Northern Ireland (96 nursery, 910 primary, 167 secondary, 73 grammar, 54 special, 29 further education), a total of 285 schools replied to a questionnaire (20 nursery, 181 primary, 41 secondary, 26 grammar, 13 special, 3 further education, 1 non-specified), a return rate of 23.11%.

Design and methods:?A review of the literature and consultation with educational experts in Northern Ireland resulted in the development of an ‘Audit’ questionnaire designed to examine dissemination and implementation (or not) of Department of Education, or bespoke, discipline and anti-bullying policies; components of anti-bullying programmes; the communication of anti-bullying policies to the school community; staff training; reporting and management of claims of staff victimisation; sanctions against bullies; and homophobic bullying.

Results:?It was found that, in a legislative vacuum, the schools in Northern Ireland had been acting in a proactive manner regarding the management of such bully/victim problems (e.g., development and implementation of policies, effective communication strategies).

Conclusions:?These results provide a baseline from which the efficacy of subsequent legislation in Northern Ireland can be evaluated. Utilisation of the methodology adopted in this study would be beneficial in other jurisdictions in evaluations of knowledge, attitudes and management of bully/victim problems, either pre- or post-implementation of legislation.     

Probing Children's Prejudice‐‐a consideration of the ethical and methodological issues raised by research and curriculum development

Since the mid‐1980s many schools in predominantly white areas have taken active steps to counter racism and ethnocentrism and raise awareness of Britain's ethnic diversity through curriculum development. This paper is primarily concerned with the ethical issues raised by research into such initiatives at primary school level. We begin by alluding very briefly to the shortcomings of extant research into children's prejudice, noting that some studies can be criticised for the unwitting reinforcement of stereotypes. We move on to examine the ethical and methodological considerations which have underpinned our own work in this area, focusing on a recent investigation into children's understanding of Jewish culture and identity. The techniques employed to probe the children's beliefs and attitudes and challenge their taken‐for‐granted assumptions are described at length, together with the ethical dilemmas addressed during the course of the research. In the second part of the paper, we focus on issues raised by our own curriculum development work in anti‐racist and multicultural education in ‘all white’ schools. We draw extensively on a recent case‐study of 10 and 11 year‐olds’ responses to a teaching programme which aimed to counter stereotypical images both of developing countries and Islam.