Gender Equality in Science: A Philosophical Perspective

Arguments used to justify gender equality in higher education often appeal to values which belong to the social context of science (human rights, efficient use of human resources, economic growth), and hence, may appear to practicing scientists as policy interventions from the outside. The author suggests that arguments which appeal to the values internal to scientific communities (objectivity, rationality, and truth) can be used to bring the goal of gender equality in higher education closer to practicing scientists and academics. Two such arguments in support of gender equality in higher education are presented.     

Degree Performance as a Function of Age,Gender, Prior Qualifications and Discipline Studied

The computerised records of a large university were analysed in an attempt to determine which variables served as predictors of degree performance. Age was a powerful predictor: mature students gained better degrees on average than younger students; and mature students with non‐traditional qualifications obtained the best degrees of all. Gender, year of graduation, and type of qualification were weak predictors of performance, but degree classifications were found to differ significantly across disciplines. The results are broadly consistent with previous studies, and suggest that opening access to mature students and to those with non‐traditional qualifications has not led to any diminution of standards. However, variations between disciplines and, in national statistics, between different years, suggest that steps may need to be taken to standardise degree classifications.     

Self-Predictions of Emotional Response Patterns: Age, Sex, and Situational Determinants

A total of 407 males and females in 4 different age groups (M age = 8.0, 10.8, 15.2, and 20.3 years) completed questionnaires requiring self-ratings of 5 emotions (angry, happy, sad, fearful, and loving), on a 5-point scale, for 10 affect-laden sentences. Each of the 5 emotions was targeted as a key emotion by 2 sentences. The resulting patterns indicate that children as young as 8 can discriminate between affect-eliciting statements, differentially rate up to 5 concurrent emotional responses, and predict response patterns similar to those predicted by adults. Furthermore, sex differences occur during adolescence whereby males predict more varied but less intense secondary emotions, whereas females predict fewer but more intense secondary emotions.     

Teachers' Gender Stereotypes as Determinants of Teacher Perceptions in Elementary School Mathematics

This study analyzes the hypothesized biasing effect of teachers' gender stereotypes on their impressions of their students' competence and effort in mathematics. 48 teachers participated in the study and responded to the questionnaires concerning perceptions of about 300 of their third and fourth grade students. In general, teacher perceptions were consistent with stereotypes of gender differences: Boys have more developmental resources in mathematics. Furthermore, this bias in teacher perceptions of their students' resources in math is linked to the teacher's own category — based, gender role stereotypic beliefs regarding the general distribution of math talent between boys and girls. The finding is moderated by the student's performance level: It only holds for average and low achieving but not for high achieving boys and girls. In this way, students' performance level is an essential mediator-variable in the transmission of teachers' gender stereotypes.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Influence and Involvement in Children''s Discourse: Age, Gender, and Partner Effects

Children's discourse with peers was examined in relation to speaker gender, partner gender, and age level. 138 children were matched with either a same- or an other-gender peer at the early childhood and middle childhood age levels (median ages = 5 and 7 years) and asked to play with puppets for 10 min. Speech acts were coded as either collaborative (affiliative involvement and direct influence), controlling (distancing involvement and direct influence), obliging (affiliative involvement and nondirect influence), or withdrawing (distancing involvement and nondirect influence). Girls' and boys' communication patterns were more similar than different. However, gender-related differences with medium to large effect sizes were found. Gender-typed communications were more likely at the middle childhood than the early childhood age level and in same-gender than mixed-gender dyads. The findings are interpreted in terms of developmental and contextual accounts of gender and social behavior. Recommendations for future research are offered.     

多学科视角下的语篇和性别研究

近年来,语言性别研究已逐渐成为对语篇性别差异的探讨。国外研究者们从多学科的角度对语篇和性别两者关系的内在规律、受制条件和互动模式进行了深入的探讨。但作为一种常见和复杂的社会现象,语篇和性别关系不是现存的一些理论框架和分析模式能够彻底诠释的。因此我们要学会使用新的理论模式来分析新环境下的性别对语篇的影响作用,正确理解语篇、性别身份和语境的含义和范畴,这对语篇和性别自身理论和分析模式的发展更加有益。     

The Gifted Rating Scales-School Form: A Validation Study Based on Age,Gender, and Race

This study examined the internal consistency and validity of a new rating scale to identify gifted students, the Gifted Rating Scales-School Form (GRS-S). The study explored the effect of gender, race/ethnicity, age, and rater familiarity on GRS-S ratings. One hundred twenty-two students in first to eighth grade from elementary and middle schools in the southeastern United States participated in the investigation. Results indicated high internal consistency for the six GRS-S scales: Intellectual Ability, Academic Ability, Creativity, Artistic Talent, Leadership, and Motivation. Results revealed no effect of race/ethnicity, age, or rater familiarity with the student. There was no significant effect for gender, although a trend was noted for girls rated slightly higher than boys across all scales. This trend was consistent with analyses of the standardization data and with cross-cultural findings using translated versions of the GRS-S. The present findings provided support for the GRS-S as a valid gifted screening instrument.     

A Way Forward: Nurturing the Imagination at the Intersection of Race,Class, Gender,and Age

Those who are oppressed often find themselves internalizing voices that limit their ability. This article focuses on a population that falls on the non-hegemonic side of the intersection of race, class, gender, and age: Black girls from poor and working-class backgrounds. From my work with youth, I have noticed that internalizing these limiting voices lead to a sense of personal hopelessness. I suggest that Christian educators combat personal hopelessness by nurturing the theological imagination of their youth.     

女性主义视野中的妇科、性别与身体——关于《繁盛之阴：中国医学史中的性（9601665年）》

美国学者费侠莉教授(Charlotte Furth)的<繁盛之阴:中国医学史中的性(960-1665年)>通过对宋元明代这一漫长时期丰富但被忽略了的妇科知识传统的考察,着力探讨中国古代女性在中医学中所承当的性别角色和身体观念的演变.该书采取女性主义视角,而非纯粹技术史的方法,通过对宋元明时期理学压抑下女性俗世生活的分析,以及杂病遮蔽下中医妇科的成长,将与医学史相关的话题置于社会、家庭、性别中加以探讨,同时,也找到了深入解读中国医学学术性格的"钥匙".     

The Effects of Age,Gender, and Economic Status on Generosity in the Presence of Exchange: A Pilot Study

In this field experiment, a confederate asked participants to provide a quarter for the confederate to make a telephone call. In the experimental condition, based on the concept of exchange, the confederate offered participants twenty-five pennies for the quarter. The researchers found that there was a significant difference in whether or not the confederate offered the pennies. Eighty-five percent of the participants complied when offered the pennies, while only 35 percent complied without the offer of exchange. Gender was not a factor. Participants over sixty-years-old complied more often than any other age group. Economic status was a factor in that those in the middle range tended to comply more often than those at either the low end or the upper end.     

Age,Gender and Training in Children's Performance of Piaget's Horizontality Task

Six-hundred children from the ages of 5 to 9 years, balanced for sex and age, were administered Piaget's horizontality tasks using a square water bottle. They were then divided into three experimental groups, and re-administered the task with or without instructions. The first group completed the task using gradually specific instructions until the participants performed each item to criterion level. The number of instructions needed to perform to criterion level was recorded (training scores). The second group completed the task with traditional training where the correct answer was demonstrated. The third group completed the task without feedback. After a month, all of the participants were given a post-test consisting of the square water bottle task, as well as a verticality task that required a related principle. Children's pre- and post-test performance scores were classified into six stages. It was found that there was a significant sex difference in the pretest performance of the horizontality task beginning at 8 years of age. The graduated training group evidenced higher stage scores on the post-test than the demonstration group and the control group. The former demonstrated a more integrated understanding of stable external reference frames compared to the other groups.     

A Cohort Perspective on Gender Gaps in College Attendance and Completion

In the last 30 years, women experienced dramatic increases in college attendance and completion. Women now make up the majority of college attenders and completers, and their numbers continue to grow. Recent research shows that these gender differences are driven largely by changes among women in rates of college attendance. What is causing these dramatic increases in college attendance among women? Studying three distinct cohorts representing the high school graduating classes of 1972, 1982, and 1992, this article studies two possible mechanisms leading to women’s changing patterns of college attendance: changing academic achievement, and changing pathways into and through college. Results show that changes in the effects of achievement on college attendance decisions are driving women’s increasing college attendance. The expansion of higher education—particularly the route through 2-year college to 4-year college—increased opportunities for enrollment and women disproportionately took advantage of these opportunities. High-achieving women, who in the past did not attend college, are now attending and using these non-traditional paths to increase their rates of college attendance.     

Infant Temperament: Stability by Age,Gender, Birth Order,Term Status,and Socioeconomic Status

Two complementary studies focused on stability of infant temperament across the 1st year and considered infant age, gender, birth order, term status, and socioeconomic status (SES) as moderators. Study 1 consisted of 73 mothers of firstborn term girls and boys queried at 2, 5, and 13 months of age. Study 2 consisted of 335 mothers of infants of different gender, birth order, term status, and SES queried at 6 and 12 months. Consistent positive and negative affectivity factors emerged at all time points across both studies. Infant temperament proved stable and robust across gender, birth order, term status, and SES. Stability coefficients for temperament factors and scales were medium to large for shorter (< 9 months) interassessment intervals and small to medium for longer (> 10 months) intervals.     

Academic Performance,Age, Gender,and Ethnicity in Online Courses Delivered by Two-Year Colleges

This study investigated the effects the demographic variables age, gender, and ethnicity and their interactions had on academic performance in online courses delivered by public two-year colleges in Kentucky. The study controlled for previous academic performance measured by cumulative grade point average (GPA). The study used a random sample (N = 320) of all students who had enrolled in at least one online course delivered by the institutions of the Kentucky Community and Technical College System in the spring 2008 semester. A linear hierarchical multiple regression acting as ANCOVA served as the main analysis, with the order entry as follows: cumulative GPA; independent variables (age, gender, ethnicity); interaction vectors; and product vectors. Final course grade served as the dependent variable. The results of the analysis indicated that only cumulative GPA was a significant predictor, explaining approximately 40% of the variance of the final grade. Although differences in final grades were present among the variables age and ethnicity, these differences disappeared when controlling for cumulative GPA. Significance of the results and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

哈代的女性观透析

剖析男作家笔下的女性形象所反映的男性化心态是女性主义学批评的一个重要范畴。章运用女性主义学批评的理论和方法，系统分析哈代的最有名的五部小说中的女性人物形象，即《远离尘嚣》中的芭思希芭、《还乡》中的游苔莎、(卡斯特桥市长》中的露赛妲、(德伯家的苔丝》中的苔丝和《无名的发德》中的淑，从她们的生存环境、性格特征、悲惨命运等方面揭示出哈代的女性观。尽管哈代是一位女性的同情和道德的宽容，但由于他自身性别立场的限制，其作品中依然存在着传统的男权化观念和价值取向。     

Perceived Age,Gender, and Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in Europe: Results from the European Social Survey

The present study evaluated the relationship between individual characteristics (ascribed, achieved, and psychosocial) and country characteristics (e.g., discrimination at the country level) and perceived discrimination. Analysis was based on the fourth round of the European Social Survey, which encompasses 54,988 respondents from 28 countries. Hierarchical linear modeling was conducted. In most countries, there was a general trend towards a higher prevalence rate of perceived age discrimination (mean prevalence rate across countries = 34.5%; SE = .002), followed by gender (mean prevalence rate across countries = 24.9%; SE = .002), and ethnic discrimination (mean prevalence rate across countries = 17.3%; SE = .002). Variations in perceived discrimination were largely attributed to individual differences. The findings are discussed in light of a distinction between perceived and actual discrimination.     

Observations of Parent Reactions to Sex-Stereotyped Behaviors: Age and Sex Effects

To examine differential socialization of boys and girls by mothers and fathers, home observations were completed for families of 92 12-month-old children, 82 18-month-old children, and 172 5-year-old children. Mothers gave more instructions and directions than did fathers, while fathers spent more time in positive play interaction. Differences in parents' reactions to 12- and 18-month boys and girls were as expected, with the exception that boys received more negative comment for communication attempts than did girls. The suggestion in the literature that fathers would be more involved in sex typing than mothers was not confirmed in this study. The only 2 significant sex-of-parent x sex-of-child effects occurred at 18 months; fathers gave fewer positive reactions to boys engaging in female-typical toy play, and mothers gave more instruction to girls when they attempted to communicate. We argue that the second year of life is the time when children are learning many new skills and when parents are still experimenting with parenting styles and may well use stereotypical responses when unsure of themselves.     

From Adultescents to Zoomers: An Examination of Age and Gender in Prime-Time Television

In sampling situation comedies and dramas airing on the six broadcast networks during the 2003–2004 prime-time season, this study examined the characterization of age and gender. Findings indicated that prime time over-represented individuals in their 30s and 40s and under-represented individuals 60 and older. Characters in their 20s enjoyed an extended adolescence, participating in more leisure and sexual activities than any other adult cohort. When characters 60 and older were seen at all, they wielded less occupational power, were less likely to be leaders, were less sexually active, and engaged in fewer leisure activities than younger characters. The authors concluded that prime-time offers a truncated view of adulthood.